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Southern  Branch 
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University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


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This  book  is  DUK  on  the  last  date  stamped  belo> 

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WOV  9      193, 


UTAH 


■;^^^^ 


TARR  AND  McMURRY  GEOGRAPHIES 


SUPPLEMENTARY    VOLUME 


UTAH 


BY 

MARCUS   E.  JONES,  A.M.  (Iowa  College) 

BOTANIST   AND    GEOLOGIST 


J  ^  0  S  3 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 
1904 

AU  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1902, 
By   THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 


Set  up,  electrotyped,  and  published  August,  1902.     Reprinted 
April,  1904. 


Norkooati  )9rees 

J.  S.  Cusliiiig  /i  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


F 

PREFACE 

In  writing  this  Siij)pleinent  the  object  has  been  to 
arrange  facts  in  the  natural  order,  botli  genetically  and 
chronologically.  A  teacher  using  this  book  will  lind 
geological  data  together  and  at  tiie  beginning.  lie  will 
tinil  mining  camps  grouped  with  an  account  of  minerals 
and  tlu'ir  origin.  Topograi)liy  and  drainage,  being  con- 
ditioned t)n  geological  history  and  dynamics.  I'olJow  them. 
Tlu'  various  valleys  are  described  as  units,  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  the  grouping  of  the  cities  and  towns  later 
6n.  Since  the  life  is  conditioned  on  climate,  it  necessarily 
follows  climate.  Vegetable  and  animal  life  come  first 
because  they  were  first.  Irrigation,  agi'iculture,  and 
stock-raising  depend  uj)()n  the  jdant  life,  and  therefore 
follow  it.  Since  the  human  life  is  conditioned  on  these. 
it  comes  last  of  all. 

Another  object  of  this  book  is  to  sliow  that  it  is  but  a 
primer  of  I'tah  geograpliy.  In  the  Search  Questions  are 
many  things  which  cannot  be  answered  by  the  puj)il  or 
teacher  without  original  research  and  study.  These  ques- 
tions are  therefore  to  be  used  as  tojjics  of  discussion  rather 
than  required  work.  They  are  things  to  set  the  pu})ils 
thinking  and   investigating   for    themselves,  and   to  show 


vi  PREFACE 

that  there  is  much  more  about  Utah  which  has  not  been 
uu'iitioued  than  is  found  in  this  hook. 

All  the  ma])s  have  been  drawn  from  original  data  by 
Miss  C'hira  Brooks  of  Salt  Lake  City,  under  the  writer's 
immediate  supervision.  The  writer  is  responsible  for  the 
topographical  features  in  all  the  maps  and  for  the  limits 
of  life  zones  in  the  zonal  map.  Most  of  the  illustrations 
are  from  photographs  taken  by  tlie  writer.  A  few  are 
from  those  taken  by  C.  R.  Savage  and  Miss  Brooks,  and 
the  illustrations  of  coal  mines  are  furnished  by  Mr.  W.  F. 
Colton. 

M.  E.  J. 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 


InijiLiil  History,  2.     Volcanoes,  8.     Hot  Springs,  10.     External  Forces, 
Krosion.  and  Deposition,  11.     Snow-slides,  19. 


CHAl'TEK    II 

■I'lpDjiraiiliy  and  Drainage,  22.  Great  Basin  Region,  22.  Western  Utah 
Section,  22.  Wasatch  Region,  23.  Region  South  of  the  Wasatch, 
27.     Colorado  River  Drainage,  27.     Scenery,  32. 


(HAl'i'KR    III 

Mineral  Resources,  30  Minerals  not  found  in  Veins  caused  by  Eruptive 
Rock,  3(».  Pumice,  36.  Sulphur,  30.  Building  Stone,  30.  Min- 
erals deposited  in  Water.  .".7.  Coal,  37.  Tetroleuin,  40.  Natural 
Ga.s,  40.  Building  Stone,  40.  Travertine,  41.  Gypsum,  41.  Salt,  41. 
Tripoli,  41,  etc.  Minerals  deposited  in  Veins,  42.  Mining,  45. 
Sorting,  4(5.  .Vssaying,  40.  Sampling,  40.  Smelting,  40.  Roast- 
ing, 47.  Concentrating,  47.  Mining  Camps,  40.  Bingham,  40. 
Stockton  and  Ophir.  r,o.  Mercur.  50.  Tintic,  50.  Knightsville,  51. 
Mammoth  and  Robinson,  51.  Silver  City,  51.  Park  City,  51. 
Alta,  52.  Frisco,  52.  Star  District,  52.  Indian  Creek,  52.  Marys- 
vale,  52.  (iold  Mountain  or  Kimberly,  52.  Iron  County,  52.  Silver 
Reef,  53.  Dugway,  •'>;!.  Fish  Siuings,  53.  Deep  Creek  Moun- 
tains, 5."!.     Other  Locali'.iis.  54. 

CHAPTER   IV 

Great  Salt  Lake,  50. 

vii 


viii  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTKR   V 

t'limate  and  Life,  05.  St.  George  Region,  05.  Green  River  Region,  05. 
Central  Utah  Region,  60.  Soil,  67.  Life  Zones,  68.  Flora,  70. 
Timber,  77.     Animal  Life,  80. 


(^IIAPTER   VI 

Agriculture  :  Irrigation,  88.  Agriculture,  85.  Grazing  and  Stock  Rais- 
ing, 88. 

CHAPTER   YII 
Settlement,  90.     Routes  of  Transportation,  94. 

CHAPTER    VHI 

Government,  97.  Political  History,  97.  System  of  Government,  97. 
Legislative,  98.  Executive,  99.  Judicial,  lOL  State  District 
Courts,  102.     County  Government,  102.     City  Government,  103. 

CHAPTER   IX 

Cities  and  Towns  exclusive  of  Mining  Camps,  105.  Region  West  of  the 
Wasatch ;  Cache  Valley,  106.  Malad  Valley,  107.  Bear  River 
Valley,  107.  Lake  Shore,  107.  Salt  Lake  Valley,  109.  Utah  Val- 
ley, lf4.  Juab  Valley,  115.  Weber  Valley,  115.  Provo  Valley, 
ll.'j.  Spanish  York  River,  116.  Thistle  Valley,  110.  Sanpete 
Valley,  110.  Sevier  Valley,  110.  Beaver  River  Region,  117.  St. 
George  Region,  117.  Settlements  along  the  Eastern  Rim  of  the 
Great  Basin,  117.  Uinta  Region,  118.  Green  River  Region,  118. 
Sfiiithfastern  Utah,  118. 

CHAPTER    X 
Education,  120.     Summary,  124.     Topical  Reviews,  127.     Tables,  128. 


UTAH 


UTAH    SUPPLEMENT 

.  i.  ^  j"  3 

Intkouuctoky  Qukstions.  — Locate  Utah  exactly  on  the  map  of 
the  United  States.  What  states  and  territories  border  Utah?  Draw 
from  memory  an  outline  map  of  Utah  with  the  names  of  states  and 
territories  on  the  border.  Make  a  dot  to  indicate  the  position  of  each 
of  the  five  large  cities.  Give  some  of  the  reasons  why  they  are  situ- 
ated where  they  are.  Why  was  Salt  Lake  City  not  located  at  Green 
River?  Does  Utah  have  greater  natural  advantages  than  Colorado, 
Nevada,  California,  or  New  York  ?  Give  your  reasons  for  and  against. 
Is  Utah  specially  well  located  as  regards  travel  and  commerce?  \Vhy  ? 
What  is  its  rank  in  population  and  area?  (For  reasons  see  table). 
Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  and  meridians  of  longitude  is 
Utah?  In  wliat  zone  is  Utah?  As  to  climate,  what  life  zones  are 
represented  in  Utah  ?  Describe  the  relief  of  tlie  state.  What  three 
great  drainage  systems  are  represented  in  Utah  ?  How  many  of  these 
are  worthy  of  mention?  Within  the  Great  Basin,  how  many  smaller 
systems  can  you  find?  What  is  the  climate  of  your  locality ?  How 
does  it  differ  trom  Salt  Lake  City  or  St.  George?  What  parts  of  the 
world  have  relief  like  certain  parts  of  Utah?  Crops?  Climate? 
What  five  regions  are  entirely  different? 

What  cities  of  the  world  are  on  about  the  same  parallel  of  latitude 
as  Salt  Lake  City?  Are  their  climates  the  same,  and  why?  Take 
railroad  folders  and  find  the  distance  from  Salt  Lake  City  to  San 
Francisco,  Denver,  Onuiha,  Chicago,  and  New  York  City.  If  it  takes 
you  an  hour  to  climb  1000  feet  straight  up,  how  long  would  it  take 
you  to  cVunb  from  the  ground  at  New  York  City  to  the  level  of  Salt 
Lake  City? 

Utah  is  situated  in  the  h)wer  third  of  the  North  Tem- 
perate Zone,  though  as  to  climate,  the  southwestern  part 
is  in  the  Tropical  Zone,  and  tlie  highest  mountain  tops  in 
the  Frigid  Zone  (Fig.  33).  The  average  elevation  of  the 
valleys  is  about  a  mile  above  the  sea,  and  of  the  mountains 
two  miles  (Fig.  I'i). 

B  1 


CHAPTER   I 

GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY 

Geological  History.  —  The  two  great  sets  of  forces 
w  liicli  produce  surface  structure  are  internal  and  external. 
The  Internal  Forces  show  themselves  in  extensive  move- 
ments of  the  earth's  crust,  by  which  it  is  wrinkled,  split, 
and  twisted,  causing  lofty  mountains,  plateaus,  valleys, 
volcanoes,  lava  flows,  and  hot  springs.  The  external 
agencies  are  temperature,  water,  ice,  and  ivind.  These 
produce  erosion,  and  deposition,  twin  sisters,  which  take 
the  surface  where  the  internal  (also  called  dynamic)  forces 
leave  it ;  they  cut,  smooth,  and  fill  up,  till  in  the  end  they 
return  it  to  the  condition  in  which  the  other  forces  found 
it.  Man  comes  upon  the  Earth  while  this  contest  rages 
between  the  forces,  and  can  exist  only  while  it  lasts. 

The  first  land  which  appeared  in  the  west  was  in  Colo- 
rado, Arizona,  and  Nevada,  but  there  was  none  in  Utah 
till  the  Coal  Age,  when  a  low  area  in  the  Salt  Lake  City 
region  and  westward  appeared.  This  land  had  dense 
vegetation  which  is  now  turned  to  graphite  and  anthra- 
cite in  the  Wasatch,  because  it  was  afterward  sunk  below 
the  ocean  and  covered  very  deeply  with  water  and  sedi- 
ments, which  caused  the  change  into  coal. 

At  the  end  of  the  Coal  Age  all  of  Utah,  west  of  a  line 
running  from  Salt  Lake  City  to  Nephi  and  thence  to 
Kanarra,  was  lifted  out  of  the  sea  in  a  lofty  plateau,  and 
wrinkled  into  nearly  parallel  mountain  ranges    running 

2 


GEOLOGICAL    HLSTORY 


3 


probably  northwest  and  southeast.  This  region  was 
drained  by  at  least  three  rivers  which  emptied  into  the 
sea  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Thistle,  and  Kanarra,  as  is  shown 
by  the  great  beds  of  red  sandstone  at  these  places.  (Fig. 
3  shows  some  of  this  sandstone;  also  Figs.  15  and  16.) 
Later  this  shore  line  was  extended  eastward  a  few  miles, 
and  part  of  the  sea  was  cut  off  and  dried  up  around  Nephi 
and  Salina,  forming  great  beds  of  gypsum  and  salt. 


Fi...   1. 

Volcano  in  Diamond  A  alley,  above  St.  George.  Notice  the  lava-riow  at  the 
base.  This  ran  down  the  present  valleys  nearly  to  Santa  Clara.  It  is  hardly 
grass-grown.     Sajjehnsh  in  the  foreground. 


T/nis  we  fiml  n'lirrin;!  f'^>'''''S  at  the  foundatlot)  of  3fan's 
prosperity.  We  find  provisioti  being  made  for  Man's  use  in 
the  coal  hedx,  perhaps  ages  he/ore  he  came  on  the  Earthy  and 
ive  find  a  plateau  sloiclif  rising  out  of  the  sea,  sloping  south- 
eastward and  having  mountain  ranges  and  large  rivers,  the 
former  furnishing  and  the  hitter  carrying  away  the  material 
which  at  a  later  date  was  to  cover  the  great  forests  of  eastern 
Utah  and  turn  them  into  coal  (Figs.  19,  20). 

During  the  It  ah  ( 'r«al  Age  (Cretaceous),  the  sea  bottom 


4  UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

of  eastern  Utah  east  and  southeast  of  Salt  Lake  City  was 
now  above  and  now  below  the  sea,  at  one.  time  densely 
covered  with  vegetation  and  at  another  by  mud  and  sand, 
till  2000  feet  or  more  of  such  beds  were  formed,  includ- 
ing several  coal  veins.  Some  of  them  were  40  feet 
thick.  From  these  comes  our  coal,  and  tliough  most  of 
this  area  has  been  worn  away,  there  still  remain  about 
7000  square  miles  of  coal  land.  The  same  agencies  which 
formed  the  coal  also  caused  the  oil,  asphalt,  and  gas  strata. 

At  the  end  of  this  Age  all  of  Utah  was  raised  above  the 
sea ;  the  Wasatch  and  Uinta  mountains  were  formed  into 
great  whalebacks,  rising  above  the  other  land  like  logs 
half  buried  in  it ;  and  a  large  fresh-water  lake  east  of  the 
Wasatch  surrounded  the  Uintas  and  extended  southward 
to  Glendale  in  Utah,  and  thence  nearly  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Colorado  in  Arizona.  The  drainage  was  into  this  lake. 
The  bed  was  broken  up  into  great  blocks  of  different 
elevation,  but  not  into  mountains.  The  Colorado  River, 
the  outlet  of  the  lake,  ra})idly  wore  its  way  back,  forming 
the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  until  it  completely 
drained  the  lake.  Then  the  present  structure  was  produced 
by  the  Great  Basin  region  (which  hitherto  had  been  a 
lofty  plateau)  sinking  bodily  to  about  4000  feet  above  the 
sea  and  becoming  a  basin.  During  the  sinking  of  this 
area  it  was  also  split  up  by  cracks  or  breaks  running  north 
and  soutli  iiiid  cutting  the  old  mountain  ranges  diagonally. 
These  cracks  crossed  the  valleys  as  well  as  the  ranges, 
continuing  sometimes  for  many  miles.  As  soon  as  they 
were  formed  the  country  on  one  side  of  the  cracks  sank 
down,  making  valleys,  and  the  other  side  rose  up,  pro- 
ducing new  mountains  which  ran  north  and  south. 

This  peculiar  origin  of  the  Basin  ranges  accounts  for 


GEOLOGICAL     lIJSroiiY 


the  fact  tluit  nearly  all  ut  ilium  air  liii;ii  in  the  nii(l(ile  and 
taper  down  to  the  plain  at  both  ends,  where  they  disappear, 
only  to  rise  again  in  another  range  farther  on.  When 
first  formed  they  were  continnons  ranges  with  vcrv  lofty 
centres  and  with 
low  depressions 
wlrere  they  crossed 
old  valleys.  But 
the  time  since  their 
formation  has  been 
so  great  that  the 
debris  worn  from 
them  has  left  onh- 
the  old  mountain 
p  arts  standing, 
while  the  depres- 
sions have  been 
covered  by  the 
great  plain  and  do 
not  appear  above 
Che  general  sur- 
face. The  ranges 
now  remind  one  of 
a  string  of  whales 
swimming  in  single 
file  through  a  sea. 

When  the  Great  Basin  sank,  both  the  western  and  east- 
er'h  edges,  which  were  represented  by  the  two  wlialel)acks, 
the  Sierras  and  Wasatch,  split  along  their  crests  from  one 
end  to  the  other.  The  eastern  side  of  tlie  Sierras  and 
the  western  side  of  the  Wasatch  sank  thousands  of  feet, 
forming  very  deep  valleys,  while  the  other  side  stood  up 


Fio.  -1. 

Mouth  of  Ofjilen  Canyon,  showing  the  ancient 
rftcks  stan()iii<i  nearly  vertically:  a  V-shaped 
canyon.  The  stream  is  full  of  trout  and  is 
overhung  by  willows. 


6  UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

in  great  serrated  mountain  ranges  which  were  precipitous 
on  the  broken  face  and  sloping  on  the  other.  At  first  the 
two  valleys  thus  formed  were  very  dee|)  and  the  ranges  of 
great  lieight  (unless,  as  is  quite  probable,  tliey  were  formed 
gradually),  for  the  difference  between  the  bottom  of  the  Salt 
Lake  Valley  and  the  crest  of  the  Wasatch  was  then  about 
40,000  feet,  or  about  eiglit  miles  vertically  ;  l)ut  since  that 
time  the  valley  has  filled  up  with  debris  from  the  Wasatch 
to  a  depth  of  at  least  13,000  feet,  and  the  range  has  been 
correspondingly  cut  down  (for  erosion  and  deposition  are 
equal).  Now  the  greatest  difference  between  the  crest  of 
the  range  and  the  valley  is  only  8000  feet.^ 

At  the  n(jrth,  above  l^ogan,  though  tlie  splitting  of  the 
Wasatch  took  place,  the  two  edges  slipped  by  each  other 
but  little  and  sank  together,  so  that  the  fresh-water  lake 
north  of  the  Lintas  spread  out  over  I'tah  into  Nevada, 
and  formed  a  lake  extending  from  tlie  Sierras  to  the 
Wasatch.      (I^^igs.  2,  45,  and  52  show  the  Wasatch  cliffs.) 

In  comparatively  recent  times,  probably  since  Man  came 
on  the  Earth,  this  latter  body  of  water  was  divided  by  an 
elevation  of  land  in  Nevada,  and  was  also  cut  off  from 
Wyoming,  forming  two  lakes.  The  western  is  called  Lake 
Lahontan  and  the  eastern  Lake  lionneville.  Tlie  latter 
had  its  outlet  into  the  Snake  River  (see  Fig.  27). 

It  is  also  probable  that  at  this  time  the  present 
watershed  of  tlie  eastern  side  of  the  (ireat  I>asin  was 
formed  by  the  elevation  of  the  whaleback  (now  only 
the  western  half  of  it  is  left)  called  the  Coal  Range 
(Wasatch    Plateau),  which  runs    from  the   Uintas  south 

iThis  does  not  account  for  the  difference  between  20,000  feet  and 
40,000  feet,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  remaining  dfibris  was 
spread  out  over  a  part  of  the  bed  of  Great  Salt  Lake. 


GEOLOGIC  A  L    HIS  TOR  V 


through  Coltoii  to  Caunonville  and  thence  westward  to 
Nevada.  This  added  the  Weber,  Provo,  and  Sevier  rivers 
and  desert  to  the  Great  Basin  area,  though  the  last  two 
were  at  firstNi  part  of  the  Coh)rado  Jiiver  drainage  (St. 
George  region)  till  cut  off  by  lava  flows.  (Views  of  parts 
of  the  Coal  Range  are  found  in  Figs.  19  and  43.) 

Before  the  formation   of    the  two    lakes  in   the  Great 
Basin,  the  climate,  which  had  been  tropical  and  very  moist, 


Fic.  :i. 

Cross-bedded  sandstone  near  Kanab,  showing  the  way  in  which  it  is  formed. 

became  very  dry  and  probably  cooler.  Tht;  lake  drit'd  up 
for  the  most  part,  and  much  alkali  accumulated  over  the 
exposed  areas.  It  tilled  the  beds  of  lialf-decayed  plant 
remains^with  salty  water,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  production  of  gas  and  oil,  later.  These  beds  now  exist 
from  Salt  Lake  City  to  Corinne.  Afterwards  the  climate 
gradually  grew  colder  till  it  culminated  in  the  Ice  Age.^ 

1  The  time   since  the  Ice  Age  is  variously  estimated  from  10,000  to 
120,000  years.     The  .state  of  preservation  of  the  ohl  beaches  of  Great  Salt 


8  UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

At  this  period  the  temperature  was  so  low  that  the  evapora- 
tion became  less  than  the-rainfall;  and  therefore  the  empty 
basins  filled  with  water.  The  soil  became  sweet  again ; 
the  mountains  were  covered  with  masses  of  snowy  wliite ; 
and  the  valleys  teemed  with  Arctic  life,  because  the  climate 
was  frigid. 

Tims  wp  find  that  (jreat  coal  beds  were  made,  ivhicJi  now 
SKjyply  Utah  with  fuel  at  a  time  tvhen  her  forests  have  disap- 
peared. We  find  strata  containing  natural  gas^  oil  and 
asphalt.,  building  stone.,  etc.  We  find  the  region  elevated., 
drained.,  and  cut  so  as  to  make  the  coal  and  gas  deposits  ac- 
cessible. We  find  the  Wasatch  and  Uintas  elevated.,  and  the 
open  valleys  partially  filled.  A  tropical  climate  prevailed 
at  this  time^  and  the  moist  air  doubtless  .supported  a  de7ise 
vegetation  ofjmlms  and  ferns.  Following  this,  Man  appeared. 
The  climate  became  very  'dry  and  cooler.  A  great  lake  was 
formed^  extending  from  the  Wasatch  to  the  Sierras.  This 
body  of  water  afterward  ivas  divided,  and  the  eastern  part 
became  the  forerunner  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  This  lake,  in 
the  Ice  Age,  was  fidl  of  fresh  water.  (For  old  beaches, 
formed  by  the  lake  at  this  time,  see  Figs.  27,  2H,  and  29.) 

Volcanoes.  —  In  the  process  of  continent  building,  one  of 
the  lesser  products  is  the  volcano  with  its  outpouring  of 
pudding-stone,  ashes,  pumice,  and  lava.  The  volcano  is 
found  only  when  the  great  breaks  in  tlie  rocks  are  such 
that  they  permit  the  melted  i-ock  to  come  to  the  surface 
from  below  in  so  fluid  a  state  that  it  boils  out  and  builds 
up  a  cone;  l>nt  the  more  common  case  is  where  the  fissures 
or  breaks  are  filled  with  melted  rock  which  becomes  too 
cool  to  flow  before  it  reaches  the  surface.      This  material 

Lake  indicate  clearly  that  the  time  elapsed  is  less  rather  than  more  than  is 
generally  supposed. 


GEOLOGICAL    IHSTORY 


9 


is  seen  only  when  tin-  rocks  are  worn  away  by  tlie  elements, 
or  cut  by  shafts  and  tunnels.  A  general  name  given  to 
tl*#8e  underground  eruptive  rocks  is  porphyry  dykes,  and 
upon  them  depend  almost  all  our  mines,  for  without  por- 
phyry tliere  are  practically  no  mineral  veins.  Volcanoes 
were  common  in  Utah  at  all  stages  of  its  history,  init  were 
most  abundant  just  before  the  format  ion  of  Lake  Bonne- 


^0 

P 

*i 

i^ 

^^E. 

-  - 1.  ■-.. 

^i 

Fic.   4. 

Great  clay  hill  near  Tlioinpson's  Springs,  showing  the  manner  of  weathering. 
A  typical  desert. 

ville.     Some  continued  till  recently  for  only  a  few  hun- 
dred 3'ears  ago). 

Thegreatestof  our  ancient  volcanoes  was  Mount  Belknap, 
which  burst  out  on  the  western  side  of  a  limestone  moun- 
tain nearly  a  mile  high,  but  soon  overtopped  and  covered 
it  with  2000  feet  of  lava,  while  its  cone  towered  probably 
15,000  feet  above  the  sea.  After  it  ceased  to  erupt, 
smaller  cones  burst  out  at  its  base.  One  has  large  sulphur 
deposits,  and  another  has  fine  pumice  stone.  Many  vol- 
canoes do  not  come  from  fissures,  but  force  their  way  up 
through  level  and  unbroken  ground  in  what  are  called 
chimneys  (because  of  their  likeness  to  ehimneys  of 
houses.      The   Fish    Lake   region    is   an   example   of   this. 


10  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

having  immense  lava  flows  also  (Fig.  8).  Fish  Lake 
probably  covers  the  crater  of  one  of  the  vents.  An 
example  of  volcanoes  that  did  not  come  to  the  surface,  but 
lifted  up  the  strata  in  a  great  dome  without  bursting 
through,  is  found  in  the  Henry  Mountains.  Sevier  Valley 
is  full  of  old  volcanoes,  as  is  also  the  country  around  Fill- 
more, Dugway,  Fish  Springs,  and  in  southern  Utah.  The 
most  perfect  and  the  youngest  volcanoes  are  those  at  Oasis 
and  Diamond  Valley  above  St.  George  (Fig.  1). 

We  find  volcanoes  are  the  vents  of  iinderground  masses  of 
melted  rock  tvhich  come  uj)  along  fissures,  or  bore  their  UHiy 
through  the  overlying  strata,  forming  chiynneys.  Volcanoes 
often  have  sulphur  and  pumice  deposits  7iear  the  old  craters, 
and  the  lava  often  inakes  good  building  stone. 

Hot  Springs.  —  These  are  nearly  always  associated  with 
some  lava  flow  or  volcanic  movement,  and  are  caused  by 
water  flowing  over  heated  rocks  on  its  way  to  the  surface, 
and  dissolving  more  or  less  mineral  matter.  Some  springs 
are  brackish,  some  carry  iron,  copper,  sulphur,  or  lime,  and 
many  carry  several  of  these  elements.  The  most  noted 
are  the  brackish  iron  springs  at  Ogden,  the  salty  springs  of 
Salt  Lake  City,  Castilla,  Grantsville,  Lehi,  Sevier  Desert, 
Midway  Pots,  Monroe,  Richfield,  Milford,  and  the  Rio 
Virgin.  Nearly  all  are  famed  for  tlie  cure  of  rheumatism 
and  painters'  colic,  called  "leading."  Some  are  boiling 
hot ;  some  are  warm  ;  some  are  cold. 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  two  sets  of  forces  causing  earth 
structure?  What  are  the  effects  of  each?  Why  cannot  Man  exist 
after  these  forces  cease  to  act  ?  When  and  in  what  part  did  land 
first  appear  in  Utah?  What  covered  it,  and  what  became  of  this 
covering?  What  part  of  Utah  first  rose  above  the  sea  to  stay? 
When?      What  was   its  slope  and  surface?      Where  did   its  rivers 


GEOLOGICAL   IIISTOliV  11 

empty  V  I  low  cuiiu;  salt  to  Ite  i'oriued  a  little  later?  Where  and  how 
were  the  yreat  coal  beds  formed?  How  much  is  left  of  them? 
AVheii  were  the\Vasatch  and  I'iiitas  formed?  Why  is  the  western 
side  of  the  Wasatch  so  steep  ?  Why  do  most  of  our  mountains  have 
one  face  steep?  What  occupied  eastern  Utah  after  the  Wasatch  and 
Uintas  were  formed?  Trace  its  boundary  on  the  west.  What  was 
the  slope  of  I'tah  then?  When  was  the  Great  Basin  formed,  and 
how?  What  tilled  it  at  first?  What  became  of  it ?  How  was  Lake 
Bonneville  formed  and  what  was  its  outlet?  When  was  the  Coal 
Range  formed  ?  Diil  it  add  to  the  (ireat  Basin  or  change  the 
drainage?  What  was  probably  the  original  outlet  of  tlie  Sevier 
River?  Wliatwas  the  climate  at  first  and  how  did  it  change?  AVhy 
did  the  dry  basins  fill  up?  What  is  a  volcano?  What  does  it 
produce?  What  is  the  common  name  for  underground  eruptive 
rock  in  fissures?  What  valuable  deposits  are  caused  by  it?  What 
was  the  greatest  ancient  volcano  in  Utah  ?  Describe  it  and  its 
products.  Have  there  been  recent  volcanoes  in  Utah,  and  where? 
Have  you  seen  any?  Mention  volcanoes  that  did  not  come  up 
through  fissures.  What  came  up  near  to  but  not  through  the  upper 
strata,  and  what  did  they  cause?  Where  are  old  volcanoes  the  most 
common  in  Utah?  How  did  hot  springs  originate?  Do  they  ditfer, 
and  liow  ?  Mention  live  prominent  ones.  If  yon  have  seen  any 
deserilie  them. 

Skauch  QiESTioNS.  —  How  do  geologists  determine  the  early 
history  of  the  earth?  Why  cannot  Man  exist  when  the  warring 
forces  cease  ?  Why  are  anthracite  and  graphite  grouped  together, 
and  how  are  they  formed?  Why  are  salt  and  gypsum  beds  associated? 
What  kind  of  vegetation  existed  in  llic  Coal  Age?  What  is  the 
Utah  Coal  Age?  What  conditions  are  required  for  tlie  production 
of  oil,  gas,  etc.?  (See  Petroleum.)  Would  the  change  of  a  wet  to  a 
dry  climate  alter  the  vegetation  ?  Will  a  salty  soil  support  the  same 
vegetation  as  one  not  salty?  Would  there  be  gas  near  Salt  Lake 
City,  had  the  climate  been  moist  just  before  the  Ice  Age?  Will  a 
permanent  change  in  temperature  alter  the  vegetation?  Why  do 
volcanoes  build  up  cones?  Why  are  the  craters  reversed  cones? 
Why  do  hot  sulphur  springs  cure  lead  poisoning? 

External  Forces;  Erosion  and  Deposition. — Erosion  is 
the  wearing"  dnwii  of  material;  dfjjnsif/ioi  is  the  carrying 
away,  spreading  otit,  and  haying  down  of   this  materiah 


12  UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

They  are  C()m[)k'iiients  of  one  another,  for  wliat  is  taken 
from  one  phice  must  be  hxid  down  in  another.  Were  it 
not  for  erosion  the  eartli  would  not  be  habitable,  because 
there  would  be  no  soil  for  plants,  no  })lains  for  cultivation  ; 
the  mountains  would  be  too  high  and  the  valleys  too  low. 
The  chief  factor  in  erosion  is  water,  though  ice  and  wind 
play  minor  parts. 

The  rapidity  of  erosion  is  governed  by  the  slope,  rain- 
fall, hardness  of  the  material  worn  off,  and  the  amount  of 
grit  in  the  water,  but  not  by  the  amount  of  surface  cov- 
ered. Therefore  the  immense  quantity  of  debris  worn  off 
from  a  great  area  need  surprise  no  one,  for  it  is  only  as 
much  in  proportion  as  it  would  be  over  an  acre.  When 
the  sea  bottom  is  first  raised  above  the  water  the  top 
layers  will  wash  off  with  great  rapidity,  because  they  are 
mud ;  but  tlie  hard  rock,  which  lies  far  below,  when 
reached,  will  wear  away  with  great  dilficulty.  (Such 
rocks  are  represented  in  Figs.  2,  5,  0,  7,  9,  10,  17,  27, 
53,  etc.) 

The  carrying  power  of  water  increases  sixty-four  fold 
every  time  the  speed  is  doubled.  The  speed  of  water  is 
governed  by  tlie  slope,  the  straightness  of  the  channel,  and 
freedom  from  oljstaclcs.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  a 
bare  slope  and  a  straight  canyon  are  suitable  conditions 
for  cloudbursts,  while  a  grassy  slope  or  one  covered  with 
brush  or  trees  will  [)revent  chjudbursts.  A  cloudburst  is, 
in  Utah,  understood  to  be  tlic  destructive  torrent  which  is 
the  product  of  a  heavy  rainfall  on  the  bare  w^atershed  of  a 
stream.  The  selective  power  of  water  of  varying  speeds 
results  in  the  dropping  of  great  boulders  at  the  mouths  of 
the  canyons,  because  the  moment  the  confined  stream  comes 
out  of  the  canyon  the  water  spreads,  and  its  speed  and 


GEOLOGICAL    IIIfiTORY 


13 


carrying  power  are  greatly  reduced.  Therefore  it  drops 
the  Large  boulders  first,  carries  others  farther  on,  and  parts 
with  the  fine  sand  and  mud  last  of  all.  This  results  in  the 
building  up  of  what  are  called  alluvial  cones,  wliicli  are  so 
characteristic  of  the  arid  West. 

The  formation  of  deltas,  benches,  and  bars  at  the  mouths 
of  streams  in   lakes  follows  the   same   law  as  ajjijlied   to 


Fig.  5. 

Erosion  of  the  Pink  Cliffs,  near  the  Colorado  River. 

lake  currents  and  waves,  which  have  produced  such  con- 
spicuous features  in  the  old  shore  lines  of  (xreat  Salt 
Lake.  Examples  of  these  are  the  Provo,  Ogden,  and 
Tooele  benches,  (ireat  bars  are  found  at  the  point  of 
the  mountain  south  of  Draper,  and  at  Stockton.  Old 
beaches  occur  throughout  Salt  Lake  \'alley  and  along 
the  mountains  north  to  rollinston  and  west  to  Deep 
Creek.  The  best  beaches  are  at  Chambers"  Station,  west 
of  Salt  Lake  Citv,  where  one  of  them  is  400  feet  wide 
(Figs.  27,  28,  29,  32). 


14  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

Erosion  of  mountains  by  water  produces  V-shaped 
can3-ons  and  torrents;  the  faster  the  erosion  the  nar- 
rower the  V.  These  are  the  most  common  canyons 
in  Utah.  Magnificent  examples  of  this  are  the  lower 
parts  of  Big  Cottonwood  and  American  Fork  canyons, 
whose  walls  are  nearly  4000  feet  high  and  almost  ver- 
tical ;  still  greater  is  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado, 
nearly  6000  feet  deep.  The  grandeur  of  Utah  scenery 
depends  upon  this  feature  of  erosion,  combined  with 
glacial  action  (Figs.   2,  5,  15,  16,  17,  10). 

When  continents  are  young  they  generally  rise  faster 
than  they  wear  away  ;  but  as  they  get  older  the  mountains 
are  cut  down  faster  and  the  plains  expand  till  the  former 
look  like  islands  in  the  latter.  This  is  the  case  with  most 
of  the  ranges  in  the  Great  Basin.  Mountains  are  sharp 
and  rugged  during  their  middle  life;  the  younger  they 
are  the  more  smooth  and  rounded  they  appear.  This  is 
beautifully  illustrated  by  the  rugged  and  gray  old  Wasatch 
and  Uintas,  and  the  plump,  rounded,  and  young  Coal  •/ 
Range  (Figs.  2,  6,  7,  9,  11,  14,  53). 

The  rapidity  of  erosion  under  favorable  conditions  is 
almost  beyond  l)elief.  The  material  taken  away  from 
western  Utah,  the  Wasatch,  and  Uintas  since  the  Coal 
Age  was  all  laid  down  in  eastern  Utah  and  western 
Wyoming  over  an  area  several  hundred  miles  long  and 
wide,  and  over  a  mile  deep.  Again,  the  same  material 
south  of  the  Uintas  has  been  almost  entirely  removed, 
to  a  depth  of  nearly  2000  feet,  over  an  area  200  miles 
long  and  75  miles  wide,  and  carried  out  into  the  Gulf  of 
California.  A  peculiar  feature  of  this  latter  region  is 
that  tlie  bottom  of  these  beds  is  composed  of  clay,  which 
wears  away  faster  than  the  overlying  ro(;ks,  and  thus  the 


GEOLOGICAL    UI><TORY  15 

weather  undermined  tlieni  so  tluit  there  was  always  a  pre- 
cipitous face  presented  as  the  erosion  crept  back.  This 
precipice  of  2000  feet  has  worked  back  throufjh  the  phiteau 
toward  the  Uintas,  and  is  called  the  Book  Cliffs.  It  has 
also  crept  westward  till  it  has  eaten  away  all  of  the  great 
plateau  there,  except  a  strip  15  miles  wide  between  it  and  the 
Sevier  Valley,  called  the  Coal  Range  or  Wasatch  Plateau. 
The  ground  uncovered  by  the  creeping  back  of  the  preci- 
pice is  still  a  great  clay  bed,  wasting  away  rapidly,  and 
is  so  unsuitable  to  vegetation  that  it  is  a  desert  which 
yields  slowly  to  cultivation  (Figs.  4,  5,  15,  16,  19). 

Thus  tve  see  that  erosion  has  cut  down  the  mountains,  pro- 
duced most  stupendous  changes,  and  is  still  causing  destruc- 
tion hy  cloudbursts.  This  is  all  due  to  the  carrying  poiver 
of  water  under  favorable  circumstances.  We  find  also  that 
deposition  has  filled  eastern  Utah  tvith  an  immensity  of  ma- 
terial that  is  almost  beyond  belief,  and  has  also  taken  most 
of  it  away  again.  We  find  that  erosion  in  dry  climates  pro- 
.  duces  far  different  effects  from  that  in  wet  climates. 

Chemical  changes  take  place  also  while  rocks  are  l)eing 
worn  down,  producing  compounds,  some  of  which  will 
dissolve  in  water,  such  as  the  salts  of  magnesium,  sodium, 
and  potassium.  They  are  usually  in  such  minute  quanti- 
ties in  proportion  to  the  water  in  streams  and  springs  that 
they  are  not  noticeable  to  the  taste.  But  in  dry  regions, 
the  water  collects  in  the  valleys  and  evaporates,  and  the 
minerals  are  deposited  because  they  do  not  evaporate. 
Therefore  they  soon  become  evident  in  the  soil,  and 
change  or  kill  the  vegetation.  From  this  cause  flat 
regions  whicii  dry  up  entirely  become  veritable  deserts 
like  that  west  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  In  basins  that  do  not 
dry  up  entirely  the   water  becomes  very  salty  in   time. 


16 


UTAH  STATE   SUPPLEMENT 


Great  Salt  Lake  is  an  example  of  this,  with  its  water 
carrying  twenty-five  per  cent  of  these  salts,  amounting  to 
seven  billions  of  tons,  most  of  which  is  common  salt. 

Glaciers.  —  Glaciers  are  streams  of  frozen  ice.  They 
were  confined  to  the  higher  mountains  of  Utah.  Ice 
under  heavy  pressure  will  How  like  thick  molasses,  but 
very  slowly.  In  the  heads  of  all  the  great  canyons  of  the 
Wasatch  and  the  Uintas  and  in  isolated  spots  around 
Mount    Belknaj),  the    Deep  Creek,  Oquirrh,   Aqui,   Fish 


Ki<;.  (J. 

Glacier-sc-oi-eil  rocks  iit  Lake  Blanche.      Tliis  is  solid  lied  rock,  scored  and 
polished.     Alpine  flowers  in  the  crevices. 

Lake,  Henry  and  La  Sal  mountains,  vast  beds  of  snow 
collected  during  the  Ice  Age,  and  remained  from  year  to 
year.  The  great  weight  of  this  mass  changed  the  lowest 
snow  of  the  beds  to  ice,  and  because  of  the  slope  forced  it 
slowly  down  the  canyon  in  a  stream.  This  stream  of  ice 
froze  to  everything  tliat  it  touched  and  either  cari'ied  it 
away  or  was  itself  forced  over  it,  if  the  obstacle  was  fixed 
immovably  in  the  ground.  Loose  rocks  lying  on  the 
bottom  were  seized  and  forced  along,  scraping  and  cutting 


GEO  LOGIC  A  L   HIS  TOR  Y 


17 


everything  they  passed  over.  The  same  was  true  of 
every  particle  of  grit,  however  large  or  small,  and  tlius 
the  canyons  were,  so  to  speak,  sand-papered  out  very 
rapidly  into  U-shaped  slopes  by  the  glaciers.  Since  the 
depth  of  the  scratches  would  be  governed  by  the  weight 
of  the  overlying  ice  and  snow,  the  heads  of  canyons  were 
cut  down  quicker  than  the  lower  parts,  whicli  resulted  in 


Vu:.  7. 

Scoring  tools  at  Lake  Blanulie.     (ilacial  ainpliitlieatre  in  the  baekirrmiiid. 

Firs  in  tlie  centre. 


the  formation  of  pot-lioles,  basins,  and  amphitheatres  there. 
Material  falling  on  the  top  of  the  ice  stream  from  the 
cliffs  is  most  a])undant  along  the  edge,  and  is  called  a 
moraine.  When  a  glacier  flows  so  far  that  it  reaches  a 
region  which  is  too  warm  for  it,  then  the  ice  melts  at  the 
end  as  fast  as  it  flows,  and  drops  there  all  the  debris  that 
it  is  carrying  along.  The  hner  material  will  be  washed  off 
by  the  river  which  the  melting  ghicier  forms;  the  heavier 
material  will  be  left  behind  in  a  great  pile  which  is  called 
a  terminal  moraine. 


18 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


Most  of  the  glaciers  in  the  Wasatch  and  other  moun- 
tains, except  the  Uintas,  were  short.  Only  one  of  them 
reached  the  valley  below  and  furnished  icebergs  to  float 
on  Great  Salt  Lake ;  this  was  the  glacier  of  Little  Cotton- 
wood. At  tlie  close  of  the  Ice  Age  the  ice  streams  melted 
faster  than  they  flowed,  and  so  they  rapidly  disappeared 
up  the  canyons,  leaving  a  train  of  boulders  and  debris 
behind.     There   was  a  short  time  when  the  glaciers  re- 


FiG.  S. 

Meadow  at  the  nortli  cml  nf  Fisli  Lake,  showing  the  nieaiidering.s  of  the  river. 
A  typical  grazing  scene. 

mained  stationary  and  made  large  terminal  moraines 
halfway  up  the  canyons,  but  after  that  they  quickly  dis- 
appeared. 

A  dying  glacier  uncovers  at  its  head  all  its  secrets. 
There  is  no  more  beautiful  illustration  of  this  than  around 
Lake  Blanche.  Tlicre  we  lind  gi-eat  bouhlcrs  lying  at  the 
ends  of  the  grooves  tliey  have  cut,  as  though  waiting  for 
the  ice  to  push  them  along  and  flnisli  their  work.  These 
parallel  lines,  wliich   vary  from  a  foot  deep  to  the  finest 


UEOLOaii  A  L    lllsTon  Y 


19 


liiiir  lines,  are  everywhere.  There  are  also  surfaces  as 
smooth  as  mirrors.  Close  by  are  the  polished  basins 
filled  with  crystal  water  and  edged  with  alpine  flowers. 
Here  he  who  runs  may  read  the  story  of  the  glacier 
written  on  the  rocks  (Figs.  H,  7,  8,  0,  14). 

We  find  that  glaciers  have  caused  the  (jreat  storage  basins 
in    Utah,  which  make  irrigation  throughout  the  season  pos- 


FlG.  '.). 

A  great  amphitheatre  and  lake,  at  Brighton's,  of  glacial  origin.  Summer 
hotel  in  the  centre.  Grove  of  spruces  with  summer  cottages  in  the  open- 
ing in  the  foreground.  Aspen  tree  on  the  right.  The  lofty  cliff  in  the 
background  is  honeycombed  with  mining  tunnels. 

stble.      Theg  have  also  produced  our  beautiful  alpine  lakes 
and  sutinncr  7-esorts  (Figs.  7,  8,  0). 

Snowslides. — The  high  winds  in  winter  pile  up  great 
combs  of  snow  under  the  crests  of  the  mountains.  Under 
favorable  circumstances  these  masses,  in  breaking  off, 
start  the  snow  on  the  steep  slopes  till  the  whole  mountain 
side,  when  destitute  of  trees,  becomes  a  moving  body. 
This  increases  in  speed  and  power  till  stumps,  trees,  boul- 


20 


UTAH  STATE   SUPPLEMENT 


ders,  and  houses  in  its  track  are  swept  away  and  piled  up 
in  the  canyon  l)elow.     Thousands  of  men  have  lost  their 

lives  by  snow- 
slides,  and 
much  mining 
property  has 
been  destroyed 
(Fig.  10). 

Wind  Sculp- 
ture.— Though 
there  is  some 
wind  sculp- 
ture in  south- 
ern Utah,  it 
reaches  its 
perfection  in 
southern  Ne- 
V  a  d  a.  The 
rainfall  there 
is  so  slight 
that  the  can- 
yons have  no 
streams,  and 
are     visited 

only  by  an  occasional  cloudburst.  The  debris,  which  is 
produced  by  the  action  of  the  sun  upon  the  rocks,  if  fine, 
is  picked  up  by  the  wind  as  dust,  sand,  or  gravel  and 
carried  into  the  depressions,  till  in  time  they  are  filled 
so  that  the  mountains  slope  gracefully  into  the  foothills, 
and  these  pass  by  the  most  exquisite  curves  into  the  open 
valleys. 


^m. 


Fig.  10. 

A  snow.slide  in  City  Creek  Canyon,  which  tore  np 
everything  in  its  way  and  piled  up  snow,  logs,  and 
stumps  in  the  canyon  below. 


GEOLOGICAL   ULSTORY  21 

Questions.  —  What  is  erosion?  What  is  deposition?  Why  ai>; 
erosion  and  deposition  vahial>le  to  Man?  What  is  the  chief  factor  in 
erosion?  Why  does  tlie  surface  wear  away  so  rapidly  when  tiie 
ground  is  first  raised  above  the  water?  How  niucli  is  tlie  carrying 
power  of  water  increased  by  doubling  its  velocity  ?  What  governs 
tlie  speed  of  water?  What  conditions  are  suitable  for  cloudbursts, 
and  what  not?  What  does  the  selective  power  of  water  cause? 
What  are  alluvial  cones?  Wliat  governs  the  formation  of  deltas,  etc.? 
Give  examples  of  old  beaches  and  bars.  Where  are  the  best  old 
beaches  found?  What  does  erosion  by  water  cause?  jNIention  the 
greatest  water-made  canyons  of  Utah.  Upon  what  does  the  grandeur 
of  Utah  scenery  depend?  What  is  true  of  young  continents  and  what 
of  old  ones?  How  do  young  continents  differ  from  old  ones?  Can 
you  give  examples?  Describe  the  rapidity  of  erosion  under  favorable 
circumstances,  and  what  it  has  done  in  eastern  Utah.  What  tine 
scenery  has  it  produced  in  Utah?  What  lias  it  left,  and  what  is  their 
character?  Does  erosion  by  water  cause  any  other  changes  than  the 
wearing  away  of  material?  Where  do  these  changes  show  them- 
selves, and  what  do  they  cause?     Give  examples. 

What  are  glaciers?  Where  were  they  found?  To  what  are  they 
due?  What  do  they  do  on  their  way  down  the  canyons?  How  can 
you  tell  a  glacial  canyon?  Why  are  lakes  formed  at  the  heads  of 
glacial  canyons?  AVhat  is  a  moraine?  What  do  glaciers  form  at 
their  lower  ends?  How  many  glaciers  in  the  Wasatch  reached  the 
valley?  What  caused  the  death  of  the  glaciers?  AVhen  does  a 
glacier  tell  her  secrets?  Where  can  you  find  these  secrets  revealed 
best?  What  are  snowslides,  and  what  are  their  effects?  Describe 
wind  sculpture. 

Seaiuh  QiESTiONS.  —  Why  does  the  rapidity  of  erosion  depend 
on  the  slope,  etc.,  and  why  is  the  carrying  power  so  greatly  increased 
by  doubling  the  velocity?  How  can  yon  tell  whether  bars  were 
formed  when  the  waters  of  the  lake  were  rising  or  falling  at  different 
periods  in  its  history?  Why  are  young  mountains  smooth  and 
rounded?  ^^'hy  is  erosion  no  faster  over  a  large  area  than  over  a 
smaller  one  in  proportion  ?  Why  do  not  minerals  evaporate  as  well  as 
water?  Why  do  we  not  have  glaciers  in  Utah  now?  In  what  years 
are  snowslides  most  common  ? 


CHAPTER    II 

TOPOGRAPHY    AND    DRAINAGE 

Topographically  Utah  is  divisible  into  the  Great  Basin, 
Colorado  River,  and  Snake  River  drainage  areas.  The 
latter  is  not  worthy  of  special  mention. 

Great  Basin  Region.  —  Western  Utah  Section.  All  that 
part  of  L'tali  west  of  the  VV^asatch  and  north  of  Kanarra  is 


A  typical  flesert  valley  in  western  Utah.  The  white  bushes  iu  the  foreground 
are  the  winter  fat,  the  most  nourishing  desert  food.  The  dark  bushes  are 
the  rabbit  bush  ;  the  larger  ones  in  the  centre  are  junipers. 

practically  a  plain  with  pai-allcl  and  interrupted  ranges  of 
mountains  running  nearly-  north  and  south,  rising  out  of  the 
level  ground  like  islands,  and  being  about  20  miles  apart 
(Fig.  11).  The  elevation  is  about  4600  feet  above  the  sea. 
There  is  not  a  single  river  flowing  through  it  and  only  two 
touch  its  eastern  edge.  All  its  mountains  are  rugged  and 
steep,  2  to  5  miles  wide  at  base  and  generally  precipitous 

22 


TOPOGRAI'UY    A.\D   UliAlXAGE  23 

on  one  side.  They  average  about  4000  feet  at  tip  above 
the  phiin  and  are  scored  by  deep  canyons.  Few  have  snow 
later  than  June,  and  for  the  most  part  even  these  have  no 
streams  that  reach  the  phiin  l^elow  after  tliat  (hite.  All 
have  scattered  springs  in  the  canyons. 

The  Oquirrh  and  Aqui  mountains  have  short  ridges 
which  rise  to  nearly  11,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  Deep  Creek  Mountains  and  their  extension,  the  Snake 
Valley  range,  are  still  loftier,  and,  like  others,  carry  snow 
in  July,  liave  several  living  streams,  and  support  a  few 
settlements.  The  mountain  ranges  are  covered  with  sage- 
brush and  are  scantily  clad  l)el()w  with  junipers,  pinons  or 
oaks.  Only  on  the  highest  parts  is  there  any  timber.  All 
contain  valual)le  minerals.  The  rocks  in  this  region  con- 
sist chiefly  of  limestone  or  quartzite.  Now  and  then  there 
is  granite  or  other  eruptive  rock. 

The  plain  is  covered  with  sagebrush  or  alkali-loving 
plants,  except  an  area  40  by  100  miles,  west  of  Great  Salt 
Lake,  which  is  an  absolute  desert.  Scattered  over  the 
general  Utah  plain  are  isolated  alkaline  lakes,  which  were 
once  connected  with  Great  Salt  Lake.  The  most  important 
agricultural  areas  in  this  region  are  Tooele,  Deep  Creek, 
and  Skull  valleys,  and  a  fertile  region  lying  on  the  edge 
of  the  desert  from  Leamington  to  Kanarra. 

T/ie  W((i«itch  Be;/i(>n,  with  its  southern  extension  west  of 
Sevier  Valley,  is  the  backbone  of  Utah  from  every 
economic  standpoint.  The  mountains  rise  precipitously 
on  the  west  about  7000  feet  above  the  plain.  They 
are  picturesque  and  grand,  and  are  cut  completely 
through  by  the  Bear,  Ogden,  Weber,  Provo,  and  Sevier 
rivers.  They  are  deeply  carved  by  glacial  canyons  and 
taper  into  towering  ridges  (Figs.  2,  7,  9,  10,  45).     Toward 


24  VTAfI   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

the  base  the  mountains  are  covered  with  oak  brush 
(Fig.  34),  and  higher  up  they  are,  in  patches,  heavily 
timbered.  The  canyons  are  well  watered  by  clear,  cold, 
and  living  streams,  which  have  sufficient  volume  and  fall 
to  furnish  all  the  power  required  in  the  valleys  below. 
These  streams  are  the  life  of  the  valleys  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  and  support  a  dense  population  which  is 
grouped  in  many  cities  and  towns  from  Cache  to  Sevier 
Valley.  The  mountains  carry  snow  during  the  entire 
year. 

North  of  Nephi  the  most  productive  valleys  are  on  the 
west,  but  south  of  that  they  are  at  the  east  of  the  moun- 
tains. Though  there  is  a  fringe  of  cottonwoods  along  the 
streams,  the  valleys  are  without  timber,  except  where  trees 
are  planted  and  irrigated.  (For  illustrations  of  valley 
scenery  see  Figs.  47,  49,  51,  52,  53.) 

Cache  is  the  largest  valley  on  the  north,  being  thirty  by 
ten  miles.  It  slopes  toward  the  centre,  where  the  Bear 
River  cuts  it,  and  its  elevation  is  about  5000  feet. 
It  is  surrounded  by  mountains,  except  on  the  northwest 
(Fig.  51).  The  principal  streams  are  lilacksmith's  Fork, 
Logan,  and  Little  Bear  rivers,  in  addition  to  the  Bear. 

Lakeshore  is  a  long  strip  of  fine  land  from  Salt  Lake 
Valley  to  Collinston,  which  at  the  north  expands  into  a 
large  area  around  Corinne.  It  is  walled  in  on  the  east  by 
the  Wasatch.  The  slope  is  gentle  toward  the  west,  the 
elevation  is  about  4300  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Bear,  Ogden,  and  Weber  rivers,  and  by  many 
streams  (Fig.  52). 

Salt  Lake  Valley  has  a  similar  elevation  and  situation 
to  that  of  Lakeshore,  but  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Oquirrh  Mountains,  and  is  cut  off  on  the  north  by  a  spur 


V   j) 


UKIvIKF   MAP 

UTAH 

^S'rftio  it/.Mr/t'M 


z    o 


Fig.  12. 


Questions. —  Locate  all  the  lake.s  in  Utaii.  principal  rivers  and  cities. 
Locate  all  the  plateau.s,  principal  mountain  ranges,  regions  with  deep 
canyons.  Trace  the  Great  Basin  Divide  in  Utah.  ])escribe  the  general 
relief  of  the  state.  Give  the  principal  elevations.  Make  a  clay  model  of 
the  relief  of  voiir  couutv. 


TOPOGRAPHY   AND    DRAINAGE  25 

from  the  Wasatcli.  It  is  eighteen  by  ten  miles  and  slopes 
gently  to  the  north  ;  is  abundantly  watered  by  the  Jordan 
River  and  b}^  streams  from  the  Wasatch,  and  is  the  most 
populous  valley  (Figs.  47.  58). 

Utah  Valley  is  eut  off  from  Salt  Lake  Valley  b}^  another 
low  spur  from  the  Wasatch.  It  is  half-moon  shaped.  In 
the  centre  is  the  beautiful  Utah  Lake,  covering  130 
square  miles  ;  it  abounds  with  fish,  is  a  summer  re- 
sort, and  in  winter  has  fine  skating.  The  land,  which 
slopes  gently  toward  the  hike,  forms  a  strip  about  40 
miles  long.  Its  average  width  is  about  5  miles.  The 
elevation  is  4r)()0  feet.  It  is  watered  by  the  Spanish 
Fork  and  Provo  rivers,  and  by  American  Fork,  Hob- 
ble Creek,  and  other  streams  (Figs.  49,  50).  Goshen 
Valley,  lying  on  the  southern  side  of  the  lake  and  watered 
by  Salt  Creek,  is  really  a  part  of  this  valley. 

Juab  is  a  little  scantily  watered  valley,  lying  under  the 
shadow  of  Mount  Nebo,  soutli  of  Utah  Valley,  with  an 
elevation  of  5500. 

East  of  the  Wasatcli  tlie  valle3's  at  the  north  are  few. 
The  largest  is  Bear  River  Valle}-,  lying  in  the  corner  of  the 
state,  heading  in  the  Uintas,  and  ending  near  Soda  Springs, 
Idaho.  It  is  about  a  hundred  miles  long.  It  is  narrow, 
higli.  and  cold.  On  the  east  of  this  the  Great  Basin 
Divide  rises  in  high  and  rolling  hills,  running  from  the 
Uintas  toward  the  Tetons  and  thence  turning  abruptly  to 
the  Wasatch. 

Ogden  Valley  is  a  small  mount ain-lot-ked  region  lying 
east  of  Ogden. 

Weber  Valley  is  a  narrow  and  crooked  region  bordering 
the  Weber  River  and  having  enlargements  at  Morgan, 
Henefer,  Coalville,   and    Kamas.      It   is   nearly   GO   miles 


26  VrAH    <iTATE   SUPPLEMEXT 

long  and  runs  from  5500  to  7000  feet  elevation.  It  is 
watered  by  several  small  streams. 

Parley's  Park  is  properly  a  branch  of  Weber  Valley.  It 
is  nearly  round,  about  10  miles  long,  and  is  somewhat  cut 
up  by  hills.  It  lies  at  the  foot  and  on  the  east  of  the 
AVasatch,  with  an  open  country  beyond,  and  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  7000  feet.     It  is  snowy  and  cold  in  winter. 

Provo  Valley  belongs  to  the  same  general  region  as  Par- 
ley's Park,  but  is  lower.  It  is  three-cornered,  about 
twenty  miles  long,  nestling  among  the  mountains,  and  like 
Parley's  Park,  is  cold  and  snowy  in  the  winter. 

At  the  u[)per  end  of  Provo  Valley  begins  the  Great  Basin 
Divide,  south  of  the  Uintas.  It  runs  nearly  due  south  in 
a  uniform  swell  or  plateau  about  9000  feet  above  the  sea 
to  Manti,  where  it  turns  more  to  the  southwest,  and 
continues  to  opposite  Panguitch,  a  distance  of  about 
175  miles  from  the  Uintas.  Thence  it  turns  west  to 
Kanarra,  maintaining  its  great  elevation.  This  is  the 
Coal  Range  or  Wasatch  Plateau.  It,  with  the  Book 
Cliffs,  furnishes  nearly  all  the  coal  used  in  Utah.  It  is 
also  heavily  timbered  in  places  along  its  crest,  particularly 
at  the  south  (Figs.  43,  19). 

Nestling  between  the  Wasatch  and  the  Coal  Range 
opposite  Utah  Valley  is  Thistle  Valley,  with  a  north  slope, 
triangular  outline  about  10  miles  long,  and  an  elevation 
of  6000  feet.  It  is  cold  and  snowy  in  the  winter.  Thistle 
Valley  is  an  Indian  reservation. 

Sanpete  Valley  lies  over  a  rolling  divide  just  south  of 
Thistle  Valley  and  is  50  miles  long,  15  miles  wide  in 
the  centre,  and  tapers  at  both  ends.  The  elevation  is 
about  6000  feet.  It  runs  north  and  south,  has  a  southern 
slope,    and    is    well   watered  by  streams   from    the    Coal 


TOPOGUAPIIY  AM)    DHAIXAGE  27 

Range.  Like  Cai-he  X'alley  it  is  rather  cold  in  the 
winter. 

Region  south  of  the  Wasatch.  —  Sevier  Valley  joins  the 
southern  end  of  the  Sanpete,  rnns  west  into  the  Sevier 
desert  and  also  south  about  125  miles  to  the  head  of  the 
Sevier.  It  is  from  three  to  ten  miles  wide,  slopes  to  the 
north,  and  lies  like  a  long  arm  west  of  the  Coal  Range. 
Though  the  largest  valley  in  I  tali,  it  is  not  so  well  watered 
as  some  of  the  others.  The  Sevier  River  furnishes  most  of 
its  water,  though  part  comes  from  Cleai',  Beaver,  Bullion, 
Cottonwood,  Salina,  aiul  Lost  creeks.  The  San  Pitch  also 
furnishes  water.  At  the  upper  end  it  is  snowy  and  cold, 
heavily  timbered,  and  7000  to  8000  feet  in  elevation  ;  but 
at  the  north  it  is  warmer,  without  forests,  and  about  5000 
feet  above  tlie  sea.  Theie  is  more  clay  in  the  soil  than 
usiud. 

(irass  \'allev  is  a  branch  of  the  Sevier  east  of  Junction, 
where  the  east  fork  of  this  river  cuts  through  the  moun- 
tains, and  branches  into  north  and  south  streams.  These 
drain  the  valley,  which  is  about  40  miles  long,  is  high 
and  cold,   and   lies   under  the   edge   of  the    Coal   Range. 

There  are  other  small  valleys  in  the  Great  Basin  region, 
such  as  Gooseberry,  Dog,  and  Round  valleys. 

We  find  that  Utah  is  divided  into  two  grand  drainage 
areas,  the  Great  Basin  and  the  Colorado  River  region 
(Fig.  12).  The  Great  Basin  is  a  large  plain  with  island- 
like and  interrupted  ranges  of  mountain^.  It  is  verg  dry 
and  barren  in  the  west,  but  close  to  the  Wasatch  is  well 
u'atered  and  verg  fertile. 

Colorado  River  Drainage. — The  most  conspicuous  fea- 
tures outside  of  the  (ircat  Basin  in  the  Colorado  River 
drainage  are  the  Uinta  Mountains  and  the  Grand  Canyon 


28 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


of  the  Colorado.  The  Uintas  are  about  a  hundred  miles 
long,  are  nearly  14,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  are  better 
watered  and  timbered  than  the  Wasatch,  but  the  streams 
have  worn  such  deep  canyons  that  it  is  only  occasionally 
that  they  are  available  for  irrigation,  and  so  the  region  is 
noticeable  chieHy  for  its  timber,  grazing,  and  scenery. 
(For  a  view  of  the  west  end  of  the  Uintas,  see  Fig.  14.  j 


Fig.  14. 

Beaver  Lake  at  the  head  of  the  Weber  oii  the  western  end  of  the  Uintas. 
Reed's  Peak  in  the  background .  Alpine  willows  on  the  edge  of  tlie  lake. 
The  water  is  full  of  trout. 

The  Navajo  Basin  is  the  name  given  to  the  region  south 
of  the  Uintas  and  east  of  the  Coal  Range.  Except  at 
the  foot  of  the  cliffs  and  in  the  Duchesne  Valley  and 
Strawberry  Valley,  its  western  extension,  there  is  a  suc- 
cession of  dry  mesas  and  deep  canyons  with  ver}^  poor 
soil ;  the  farther  soutli,  the  higher  are  the  mesas  and  the 
deeper  are  the  canyons  (Figs.  15,  10). 

Just  south  of  and  parallel  to  the  Uintas  runs  the 
Duchesne  Valley,  wliich  is  watered  from  the  mountains 
and  is  quite  productive.  Some  distance  south  of  this  is 
the  Minnie  Maude  Creek  with  a  few  ranches.     Near  the 


TOPOGRAPHY  AXD   DRAIXAGE 


29 


base  of  the  Book  Cliffs  flows  the  I*rlre  River,  which  has 
several  small  towns  below  Helper.  Aloiif,^  the  foot  of 
the  Coal  Range  several  streams  come  out  at  intervals  and 
have  settlements  along  them.  Still  farther  south,  at  the 
head  of  the  Fremont  River,  is  the  nearly  round  Ralddt 
Valley.  Along  this  river,  but  farther  down,  are  several 
small  settlements.  In  the  midst  of  the  desert  region  east 
of    Rabbit    Valley    rise    the    domelike    //f/zr//   Mountains, 


Fiu.   15. 

Scene  in  the  eanyon  of  the  Virgin  River  above  Springdale.  The  rocks  are 
highly  colored  sandstones,  and  tower  2000  feet  in  the  air.  The  desert  Cot- 
tonwood on  the  left. 

clad  at  the  top  with  timl)er:  but  their  water  supply  is 
too  small  to  support  towns.  Where  the  Green  River 
comes  through  the  Book  Cliffs  there  is  a  good-sized  tract 
of  clay  land,  in  which  tine  crops  are  raised,  especially 
cotton,  but  the  river  soon  enters  the  canyon  below,  and 
the  aral)le  land  ceases.  On  the  Grand  River  near  the 
La  Sal  Mountains  is  Little  G-rand  Valley,  a  gorge  in  red 
sandstone  mountains,  coming  down  from  the  La  Sals. 
It  is  admirably  adapted  to  fruit.  The  lofty  La  Sal 
Mountains,    which    arc     simply    volcanic    peaks,    support 


30  UTAH  STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

many  ranches,  and  have  some  timber.  South  of  this 
region  rise  the  Blue  or  the  Abajo  Mountains,  which  are 
also  volcanic  peaks,  whose  short  streams  support  few 
ranches.  Near  the  southeastern  corner  of  Utah  is  the 
San  Juan  Miver,  supporting  the  town  of  Bluff.  This  is 
located  on  a  narrow  strip  along  the  river.  In  this  region 
the  rivers  all  enter  canyons.  At  about  the  southern  end 
of  the  Coal  Rano'e  on  the  head  of  the  Pahria  are  a  few 


Fig.  ]*i. 

An  alcove  canyon  on  the  Virgin  River.     Variegated  sandstf)ne  in  the  back- 
ground.   Junipers  on  the  .slopes  at  the  right. 

settlements.      The    narrow  valleys  are    cut   deeply    into 
the  plateaus. 

After  the  range  turns  westward  there  is  a  great  plateau 
at  the  foot  of  it,  extending  south  to  the  Colorado.  It  is 
without  water  except  in  a  few  places  where  the  canyons 
empty  into  it  from  tlie  Coal  Range  above.  In  one  of  these 
canyons  is  Johnson  and  in  another  is  Kanab.  The  Vinjiyi 
River,  which  heads  in  the  Coal  Range  and  flows  westward 
in  a  narrow  valley,  has  several  knots  of  settlements.  Then 
it  drops  over  the  red  sandstones  into  a  box  canyon.  This 
gorge  continues  down  to  near  Springdale  (Figs.  15,  16, 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND   DRAINAGE  31 

48).  From  this  place  to  Nevada  the  river  lies  deep  in  the 
plateau,  but  here  and  there  its  valley  widens  out  into 
arable  tracts,  and  narrows  aoain  into  canyons  below.  The 
elevation  is  from  3000  to  liTOO  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
climate  is  very  warm  and  tropical.  North  of  St.  George 
rise  the  Pine  Valley  Mountains.  This  is  a  short  but 
steep  range,  which  has  a  few  streams  supporting  small 
towns. 

We  find  that  the  Colorado  River  drainage  is  in  the  main  a 
region  of  great  canyons  and  barren  inesas,  ivith  poor  soil.  It 
is  a  large  coal  and  oil  section.  In  the  south  a  tropical  cli- 
mate prevails  and  fine  fruit  is  raised. 


QuKSTiONS.  —  Describe  the  topography  of  the  Great  Basin  and  trace 
its  boundary  line.  What  is  the  elevation  of  the  plain?  What  is  the 
elevation  of  the  mountain  peaks  as  a  whole?  What  mountains  have 
snow  throughout  the  year  in  j)rotected  spots?  Do  any  have  their 
peaks  covered  all  the  year?  What  are  the  most  important  mountains? 
What  is  the  vegetation  of  tlie  plains?  Describe  each  mountain  range. 
Describe  each  valley.  What  are  the  most  common  rocks?  Name  the 
luincipal  rivers  and  describe  their  courses.  What  are  the  sources  of 
these  rivers?  What  is  the  vegetation  of  the  mountains?  Is  there  any 
timber  and  where?  Name  the  cold  valleys.  What  is  the  Navajo 
Basin?  Describe  it.  Give  its  rivers  and  boundaries,  valleys,  moun- 
tains, and  i>rinoiiial  canyons. 

Skakcu  (.^ukstions.  —  Why  is  the  Great  Basin  a  great  plain? 
(See  Geolo(jic(d  Ilistor;/.)  Why  are  the  Wasatch  valleys  so  well 
watered?  IIow  do  we  know  that  the  alkaline  lakes  of  the  Great 
Basin  were  mostly  a  part  of  Great  Salt  Lake?  Why  is  the  Wasatch 
region  the  backbone  of  Utah?  Why  are  the  sections  south  of  Nephi 
less  productive  than  those  north  of  it?  Why  does  Salt  Lake  Valley 
have  the  most  rainfall  of  all  the  low  valleys  except  the  Lakeshore 
region?  Why  do  the  mountains  have  more  rainfall  than  the  valleys? 
Why  are  many  of  the  rivers  and  streams  smaller  at  their  mouths  than 
above?  Why  is  not  the  L'inta  region  the  best  in  the  state?  In  what 
valley  or  region  do  you  live?  Describe  its  topography,  streams,  and 
mountains. 


32 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


Scenery.  —  Utah  is  a  region  of  beetling  cliffs,  bare  rocks, 
deep  canyons,  roaring  torrents,  few  lakes,  and  few  rivers. 
In  the  East  the  dull  air  covers  all  with  a  haze  at  short 

distances,  making  small 
things  seem  great.  Here 
the  clear  air  gives  snap 
and  life  even  to  far-away 
mountains  and  thus  ap- 
pears to  bring  all  things 
near,  dwarfing  the  great 
mountains  into  seeming 
hills. 

In  our  valleys  the  finer 
than  Italian  sunsets  are  a 
constant  source  of  delight. 
The  snow-capped  moun- 
tains, often  cutting  the 
clouds,  and  their  endless 
changes  are  a  perpetual  in- 
spiration. From  the  foot- 
hills adjoining  the  towns 
magnificent  views  of  the 
valleys  are  obtained.  From 
the  tops  of  the  highest 
mountains  the  panorama 
of  the  populated  portion  of 
Utah  may  be  seen  for  200 
miles  in  one  direction  and  100  in  another.  The  mouths  of 
the  Wasatch  canyons  are  magnificent  because  of  thair 
narrowness  and  the  depth  to  which  they  are  cut.  Here 
the  streams  break  into  torrents,  cascades,  and  waterfalls, 
and  the  canyons  open  up  into  innumerable  recesses  4000 


Fig.  17. 

Bridal  Veil  Fall  above  Marysvale.  Fir 
forest.s  al)ove.  Ferns  and  mosses 
growing  in  the  spray.  Dense  tufts 
of  Heucheras  on  the  rocks.  Slender 
snowberry  ))Mshes  Ijclow.  These  are 
quartzite  ror-ks. 


TOPOGRArUY  AMJ    DRAINAGE 


33 


feet  high  (Fig.  45).     American   Fork  and   liig  Cotton- 
wood are  the  grandest  of  these  canyons. 

In  southern  Utah,  along  the  middle  Virgin  River,  the 
attractiveness  of  the  views  is  heightened  Ijy  the  gorgeous 
coloring  of  the  rocks.  Simi- 
lar scenery  is  found  at  Castle 
Gate,  Capitol  Wash,  and 
along  the  Cireen  and  (iraiid 
rivers.  The  most  magnili- 
cent  of  all  views  are  found 
along  the  Colorado  (Figs. 
15,  IG,  111). 

On  the  (irecn  River  Des- 
ert toward  Cisco  there  are 
many  clay  mesas,  which 
have  been  worn  into  the 
most  remarkable  seuliilure 
by  rain  (Fig.  4). 

On  the  Fremont  River  is 
a  great  variety  of  desert 
scenery,  due  to  the  altei- 
nating  colors  of  the  soft 
clay  antl  sand  beds. 

In  the  higher  parts  of 
tlie  Wasatch  and  T'intas  the 
canyons  open  out  into  great  glacial  aiiipliitlHMtres,  which 
are  from  9000  to  10,000  feet  in  altitude  above  the  sea. 
Their  walls  rise  2000  feet  vertically  above  them,  and  the 
peaks  1000  feet  still  higher  than  the  walls.  These  amphi- 
theatres are  studded  with  alpine  lakes,  gorgeous  meadows, 
and  open  forests  (Figs.  7,  iO.  These  are  the  store- 
houses of  the  winter's  snow,  which  make  irrigation  pos-. 


Fic.  IS. 

Wateifiill    below  Lake  Minnie,  tura- 
Ijlinsi  over  glacial  rocks. 


34  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

sible  at  a  time  when  the  crops  are  drying  np  in  the  valleys 
below. 

Here  the  flora  reaches  its  perfection.  There  is  to  be 
found  a  remarkable  number  of  brilliant  flowers,  so  that  the 
whole  country  is  a  mass  of  color.  Some  1100  species  of 
flowers  grow  in  the  higlier  Wasatch.  Meadows  carpeted 
with  moss,  grass,  and  bright  flowers  border  the  lakes 
or  fill  up  their  old  beds.  The  ice-cold  springs  and  riv- 
ulets are  half  concealed  by  drooping  blue-bells,  mimulus, 
columbines,  and  asters.  The  glacier-worn  rocks  are  spat- 
tered with  brilliant  lichens,  and  the  cracks  are  filled  with 
rich  sedums,  asters,  and  pentstemons.  Here  and  there  are 
beautiful  patches  of  spruces  and  firs,  affording  shelter  and 
shade  for  the  tents  of  campers.  Not  far  off,  under  the 
cliffs,  are  patches  of  snow  that  never  melt,  though  having 
their  fringe  of  alpine  flowers. 

The  summer  climate  is  so  cool  and  delightful  here  that 
many  places  in  the  Wasatcli  are  used  as  summer  resorts. 
The  most  noted  are  Brighton's,  American  Fork,  Lake 
Blanche,  in  the  Wasatch ;  the  sources  of  the  Bear  and 
Weber,  in  the  Uintas;  and  Fish  Lake  and  Fnillion  can- 
yons, on  the  Sevier  (see  Figs.  8,  17).  Other  resorts  are 
Bear  and  Panguitch  lakes.  Parley's,  Ogden,  and  Black- 
smith's Fork  canyons. 

We  find  the  scenery  of  Utah  differs  widely  from  that  of 
the  East.  Utah  is  a  region  of  bare  rocks,  towering  moun- 
tains, great  canyons,  arid  beautiful  mountain  lakes.  There 
are  brilliant  mountain  jioivers  in  great  variety.  Utah  has 
all  kinds  of  climates.  The  country  is  mostly  covered  with 
sagebrush  and  is  without  a  sod. 

Questions.  —  How  does  Utah  differ  in  scenery  from  the  East? 
Can  a  person  get  an  extended  view  anywhere  in  Utah?     The  horizon 


TOPOGRAPHY  AXD    DRAINAGE  35 

on  the  prairie  states  is  about  six  miles  in  diameter,  is  there  any  such 
phice  in  I'tah?  If  so,  where?  What  is  the  scenery  of  the  moun- 
tains? Describe  that  along  the  Virgin  River.  What  is  peculiar  to 
the  (ireeu  River  region?  For  what  are  the  higher  parts  of  the  Wasatch 
and  L'intas  noted  ?  How  many  kinds  of  flowers  are  known  in  the  high 
mountains?     Why  do  people  go  to  the  mountains  in  summer? 

Search  QrKsxiONs. —  What  causes  the  beautiful  sunsets?  Why 
does  not  the  snow  melt  first  on  the  mountain  tops  as  they  are  nearest 
the  sun?  Are  alpine  lakes  more  valuable  as  reservoirs  than  valley 
lakes?    If  so,  why? 


C^Il  AFTER    III 

MINERAL    RESOURCES 

Mineral  Resources.  —  The  mineriil  resources  of  Utah  are 
the  greatest  of  any,  and  upon  tlieni  de[)ends  a  hirge  popu- 
lation (Fig.  12). 

For  convenience  we  shall  group  the  minerals  into  those 
which  are  not  found  in  veins,  that  were  caused  ))y  eruptive 
rock,  and  those  which  are  found  in  veins  caused  by  such 
rock. 

Minerals  not  found  in  Veins  caused  by  Eruptive  Rock.  — 
This  grou[)  may  again  be  divided  into  those  liaving  their 
origin  througli  eruptive  rock  and  those  deposited  in  con- 
nection with  water. 

Minerals  of  eruptive  origin  are  pumice,  suljihur,  and 
building  stone. 

Pumice  is  an  eruptive  rock,  thrown  nut  l)_y  a  volcano,  and 
is  so  full  of  cavities  that  it  is  lighter  tliaii  water.  Our 
best  pumice  deposits  are  in  Millard  County. 

Sulphur  is  found  in  the  vents  of  old  volcanoes,  where 
it  has  collected  from  fumes  which  have  come  up  through 
the  loose  material  below.  To  be  purified  it  is  put  in  iron 
cylinders  and  steam  is  forced  through.  This  melts  the 
sulphur  so  that  it  runs  out.  The  largest  deposits  are  at 
Cove  Creek,  near  Milford  and  at  the  head  of  the  Hear. 

The  buildinf/  stone  of  volcanic  origin  is  granite  and 
basalt.  The  finest  granite  is  in  tlie  Wasatch  and  covers 
an  area  of  five  square  miles.  The  Salt  Lake  Temple  is 
built  of  this  granite. 

36 


MIX  EH A L    BE SO  URGES 


37 


Basalt  is  tlie  cliict'  hiiildiiiti^  stone  of  southern  Utah. 
The  St.  Creoro'e  Temple  is  nia(h'  of  it   (  Fi^'.  4<S). 

Minerals  deposited  in  Connection  with  Water. — The  chief 
minerals  of  value  in  this  group  are  coal,  petroleum,  build- 
ing stone,  gypsum,  salt,  travertine,  marble,  tripoli,  etc. 

Coal  is  the  most  valuable  of  these  products.  It  is  de- 
rived from  beds  of  vegetable  matter  which  were  originally 
peat  bogs.     Our  coal  i.'^   of  thi-eo  kinds,  soft  lignite,  hard 


Fig.   19. 

Castle  Gate  loal  mine,  with  trestle.  Power  house  and  railroad  on  the  right. 
Houses  of  miners  in  middle  ground  on  the  left.  The  coal  vein  lies  just  over 
the  rocks  that  appear  behind  the  smokestack. 

lignite,  and  anthracite-graphite.  Tliere  are  a  few  nar- 
row beds  of  soft  lignite  near  the  Aqui  mountains,  near 
Wales,  and  a  few  places  in  eastern  Utah:  only  the  Wales 
beds  have  any  value.  The  hard  lignite  forms  nearly  our 
entire  coal  .supply.  It  underlies  the  Coal  Range,  the  Book 
Cliffs,  and  the  region  around  Coalville.  It  belongs  to 
the  Utah  Coal  Age  (Cretaceous).  The  coal  veins  lie 
nearly  flat  at  tlie  eastern  edge  of  the  Coal  Range  and  in  the 
Book  Cliffs,  and  therefore  are  worked  by  tunnels,  but  at 


38 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


Coalville  and  on  the  western  edge  of  the  Coal  Range, 
the  beds  dip  rather  steeply  and  are  worked  by  inclines. 
Inclines  are  made  like  tunnels,  but  they  pitch  down  sharply. 
There  are  several  beds  of  coal  lying  one  above  another 
through  the  strata  of  this  age.  Tliose  deposits  which  are 
worked  run  from  3  to  40  feet  thick.  The  thickest  ones 
are  found  from  Scofield  to  Salina  Canyon.     There  are  over 


Fig.  20. 

Section  of  Winter  Quarters  coal  miue,  near  Scofield,  showing  the  way  in  which 
the  coal  is  mined. 

7000  square  miles  of  coal  lands  in  Utah.  Therefore, 
the  coal  is  valuable  only  according  to  its  nearness  to  some 
railroad. 

Our  coal  is  black,  breaks  in  cubes,  produces  much  smoke, 
and  carries  from  one  to  three  per  cent  ash.  It  was  dis- 
covered very  early  in  Utah  at  Cedar  City  and  Coalville. 
The  annual  production  is  now  about  1,500,000  tons,  valued 
at  ii;2,000,000.  Fifty-five  thousand  tons  of  coke  are  made. 
The  method  of  mining  the  coal  is  illustrated  in  the  dia- 


MIX  ERA L    R ESO URGES 


39 


gram  of  the  Winter  Quarters  coal  mine  (Fig.  20).  Most 
of  the  work  is  done  by  hand,  and  the  ground  is  allowed 
to  cave  after  the  coal  is  taken  out.  Coke  is  made  from 
the  fine  coal  that  passes  tiirough  the  screens  which  are 
used  to  sort  the  coal.  Tiiis  stuff  is  carried  to  a  group  of 
ovens  and  set  on  fire.  After  a  certain  period  the  air  is 
shut  off,  and  the  coal  turns  to  coke.      Fig.  21   shows  the 


Fig.  21. 

Castle  Gate  coke  ovens  witli  track  in  the  centre  for  dumping  the  coal  into  the 
ovens.    Each  white  spot  on  the  top  represents  an  oven. 


Castle  Gate  coke  ovens.      Fig.  19  shows  the  outside  works 
of  the  same  mine. 

In  many  places  the  edges  of  the  coal  beds  are  exposed 
to  the  air  and  the  coal  has  taken  fire.  After  it  has  burned 
back  for  some  distance,  the  overlying  rock  has  caved  and 
shut  oft'  the  air  from  the  burning  coal,  and  thus  produced 
a  natural  coke.  Examples  of  this  are  found  in  Spring 
Glen,  the  Henry  Mountains,  and  near  Pine  Valley.  In 
the  Scofield  region  por})hyry  dykes  have  accomplished  the 
same  thing  in  the  coal  veins.     Anthracite-graphite  beds  are 


40  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

found  only  in  the  blue  limestone  of  the  Wasatch,  and  belonj^ 
to  the  true  Coal  Age.  The  largest  beds  are  found  high 
in  the  mountains  from  Mill  Creek  to  Paj^son.  Near  Provo 
is  a  bed  about  four  feet  thick.  The  coal  burns  freely 
without  smoke,  but  contains  a  large  percentage  of  ash. 
This  coal  is  found  in  the  precipitous  cliffs  back  of  Provo 
(Fig.  50). 

Petroleum,  Natural  Gas,  etc.- — Where  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  have  been  deposited  in  beds  in  the  presence 
of  salt  water  and  afterwards  covered  with  a  great  thick- 
ness of  rock,  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  formed  l^y  a 
slow  process  of  natural  distillation  somewhat  after  the 
fashion  of  the  production  of  tar  from  a  charcoal  pit.  If 
the  beds  in  which  these  are  deposited  are  tilted  up  like 
the  roof  of  a  house,  gas  and  oil  collect  in  large  quantities ; 
but  when  the  beds  lie  flat  they  collect  in  smaller  quan- 
tities. Nearly  the  whole  of  Utah  east  of  the  Coal  Range 
is  underlaid  by  oil  and  gas  strata.  The  region  from  Salt 
Lake  City  to  Collinston  is  also  underlaid  by  oil  and  gas 
strata.  The  region  around  Colton  has  many  cracks  which 
have  been  filled  witli  ozokerite,  a  kind  of  paraffine.  Other 
cracks  in  the  vicinity  of  Ennna's  Park  have  been  filled 
with  an  asphalt  containing  })araffine,  and  is  called  Wurt- 
zellite.  In  the  Ashley  region  still  larger  ci-ac-ks  have 
been  filled  with  a  black,  shining  asphalt  called  gilsonite. 
All  these  are  the  products  of  petroleum,  which  has  col- 
lected in  the  rocks  and  partly  evaporated. 

Building  Stone. — The  most  common  and  easily  worked 
rock  in  Utah  comes  from  the  sandstone  beds.  The  best 
(juarries  are  found  near  Fort  Douglas,  Parley's  Park,  near 
Thistle,  Kyune,  Echo  Canyon,  and  in  southern  Utah  (Figs. 
3,  15,  16,  19).     The  Deseret  News  building  and  the  City 


MINERAL    fiESOrnCES  41 

and  County  Building  in  Suit  Lake  City  are  made  of  these 
sandstones.  The  finest  shell  limestone  comes  from  near 
Logan.  Quartzites  are  much  used  for  flagstones  because 
of  their  luirdness.  Among  the  ornamental  stones  used 
for  building,  the  Sanpete  oolite  stands  lirst.  It  is  easily 
cut  with  a  saw,  but  hardens  on  exposure.  It  abounds 
from  near  Fairview  to  Salina.  The  Manti  Temple  is 
made  of  it. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  stones  is  the  3Iexican  onyx  or 
travertine.,  which  is  a  i)ure  marble  deposited  in  bands  at 
springs.  On  being  cut  and  polished  this  becomes  very 
beautiful  because  of  its  colors.  This  rock  is  found  in 
many  places  in  L^tah,  especially  at  Pelican  Point,  Ameri- 
can Fork  Canyon,  Redmond,  Salina,  etc.  The  City  and 
County  liuilding  at  Salt  Lake  City  is  ornamented  with  it. 
Marble  is  found  at  Santaquin,  also  in  western  Utah,  and  a 
black  variety  occurs  near  Pelican  Point. 

Gypsum. — This  is  found  in  large  beds,  often  twenty 
feet  thick  and  quite  pure,  at  Nephi  and  Salina.  It  also 
occurs  in  very  pure  crystals  in  the  Henry  Mountain  region, 
and  in  fine  layers  near  Parowan.  This  becomes  plaster 
of  Paris  wdien  heated  until  the  water  is  driven  off. 

Salt. —  Associated  with  the  gypsum  are  extensive  beds 
of  salt,  which  occur  from  Nephi  to  Salina.  Most  of  it  is 
mixed  with  red  clay,  but  pure  sjiots  are  found.  This  salt 
is  much  usi'd  in  large  chunks  for  stock.  It  is  also  dis- 
solved and  evai)orated  for  dairy  salt.  About  90  per 
cent  of  the  solid  uiattcM'  of  (Ji-eat  Salt  Lake  is  salt.  This 
water  is  j)unipe(l  fnnn  the  lake  into  jionds.  The  salt  is 
collected  in  the  fall  after  nu^st  of  the  water  has  evapo- 
rated.    The  product  is  about  40,000  tons  a  year. 

Tripoli.  —  Tripoli  is  a  polishing  powder  which  is  found 


42  UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

around  old  springs  in  the  Salt  Lake  desert  and  north  of 
Great  Salt  Lake. 

Portland  cement  rock,  plastering  sand,  fire  clay,  brick 
clay,  ochre,  and  nitre  are  found  in  Utah  in  commercial 
quantities. 

We  find  th((t  the  most  valuable  mineral  deposited  in  con- 
nection tvith  water  formations  is  coal,  and  we  find  that 
graphite  and  anthracite  are  only  modifications  of  it.  There 
are  great  bodies  of  coal  in  Utah.  There  are  many  kinds 
of  building  .stone  which  are  suitable  for  cdl  purposes.  Salt 
and  gypsum  occur  in  great  quantities. 

Questions. — What  are  the  valuable  minerals  having  a  volcanic 
origin?  What  is  their  use?  Where  found?  How  is  sulphur  puri- 
fied ?  Of  what  is  the  Salt  Lake  Temple  made  ?  The  St.  George 
Temple?  What  is  the  chief  mineral  deposited  in  connection  with 
water?  Of  what  kinds?  Where  found?  What  is  its  extent  ?  Where 
is  anthracite-grai^hite  found?  What  is  its  character?  How  is  petro- 
leum formed?  Where  is  it  found?  Where  is  natural  gas  found? 
What  other  products  belong  to  the  petroleum  group  of  minerals? 
Where  are  they  found?  What  is  the  most  common  building  stone? 
Where  found?  AVhat  other  kinds  of  building  stone  have  we,  and 
where  are  they  found  ?  What  do  you  know  about  travertine  in  Utah  ? 
Gypsum?     Salt?     Tripoli? 

Search  Questions.  —  For  what  is  pumice  used?  What  is  made 
out  of  sulphur?  Do  sheepmen  use  it,  and  why?  What  causes  the 
sulphur  fumes  in  volcanoes?  How  does  granite  differ  from  basalt  or 
lava?  How  is  coal  mined?  How  is  coke  made?  For  what  are 
petroleum  and  natural  gas  used?  Gilsonite?  Ozokerite?  Of  what 
is  the  Sanpete  oolite  made?  What  causes  the  bands  in  travertine? 
Why  is  the  clay  red  that  is  associated  with  rock  salt?  For  what  is 
tripoli  used? 

Minerals  deposited  in  Veins.  —  There  are  many  minerals 
and  compounds  of  minerals  in  this  class,  but  the  chief 
ones  are  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  iron.     Since 


MIXER AL   RESOUliCES  43 

tlie  same  general  law  applies  to  the  origin  of  all  these  in 
the  rocks,  they  are  treated  together. 

It  is  necessary,  in  onltT  tu  lia\('  a  <lc]iiisit  of  ore.  that  tlu'i-e  lie  near 
it  a  body  of  porphyiy;  fm"  the  lissuiiug  or  splitting  of  the  rocks  and 
the  tilling  of  the  cracks  m  formed  is  the  canse  of  the  deposits  of 
minerals.  When  melted  rock  is  forced  into  fissures  in  other  cold 
rocks,  the  water,  which  is  every wIumc  jiresent  below  the  su/face,  is 
heated,  as  well  as  the  rocks,  and  risis  in  tlie  fissures  or  adjoining 
cracks  much  as  water  does  in  the  centre  of  a  boiling  pot.  The  heat 
makes  chemical  changes  in  the  rocks  and  jirodnces  sulphuric  and  other 
acids,  which  dissolve  in  the  water  as  it  passes  by  and  circulate  with  it. 
This  acid  water  readily  dissolves  nearly  all  metals  and  many  other 
minerals  over  which  it  flows,  and  carries  them  along  witli  it.  On 
coming  nearer  to  the  surface,  and  being  therefore  farther  away  from 
the  heated  rocks,  the  water  becomes  cooler,  or  passes  over  alkalies 
which  neutralize  or  "kill"  the  acids.  This  causes  the  minerals  to 
crystallize  out  of  the  water  along  the  walls,  and  in  time  they  fill  up 
the  cracks  and  fissures  with  ore.  This  ore  is  a  compound  of  various 
metals  and  sulphur.  (To  see  how  minerals  which  have  been  dis.solved 
in  hot  water  crystallize,  throw  alum  in  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water 
till  the  wat«r  will  dissolve  no  more.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  water  boiling 
all  the  time;  then  pour  it  out  into  another  dish  and  let  it  cool.  The 
dish  will  soon  be  covered  with  crystals  of  alum.) 

Afterward  the  movements  of  the  earth's  crust  often  rai.se  the 
mountains  so  much  higher  that  the  water  drains  out  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  veins.  Then  the  surface  water  from  rains  and  melt- 
ing snow  trickles  down  along  the  cracks  and  rusts  the  ores  because 
the  water  carries  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid,  which  tak^'  tli.'  ].lace 
of  the  sulphur  in  the  ores.  Since  it  does  not  take  as  uiudi  oxy- 
gen and  carbon  as  it  does  sulphur  to  make  compounds  with  the 
metals,  rusted  ores  will  contain  niorc  indal  (o  (lif  ton  than  unrusted 
ores,  and  so  will  be  more  valuable.  It  is  also  true  that  oxygen  and 
carbon  do  not  cling  so  closely  to  the  metals  as  suljihur  does  (that  is, 
the  chemical  compounds  are  more  easily  broken  up).  Kor  this  reason 
rusted  ores  are  more  easily  treated  to  get  the  metals  out  of  them. 
The  value  of  ore  depends  u]ion  the  amount  of  nu^tal  in  it,  and  the 
cheapness  of  getting  it  out  in  a  metallic  state.      So  we  see  why  rusted 


44  UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEME.WT 

ores  are  near  the  surface  aii<l  are  usually  more  valuable  tliau  those 
lower  down  which  are  not  rusted.  Ores  carrying  sulphur,  zinc,  arsenic, 
and  the  like  are  called  base  ores;  tliose  carrying  quartz  in  large 
quantities  are  called  dry  ores  if  they  do  not  carry  lead. 

Quartz,  heavy  spar,  and  lime  are  also  dissolved  by  these  acid  waters 
and  deposited  in  the  veins  along  with  the  ores.  The  cracks  and  fissures 
are  not  always  filled  with  ore  and  the  ore  bodies  are  generally  not  con- 
tinuous, but  are  found  scattered  in  what  are  called  chutes,  chimneys, 
bug-holes,  bonanzas,  etc.,  according  to  their  shape  and  size.  Some- 
times an  ore  body  is  not  so  large  as  a  hand;  at  other  times  it  is  larger 
than  great  buildings;  sometimes  it  is  worth  only  cents,  and  some- 
times millions  of  dollars.  Generally  ore  bodies  are  connected  with 
each  other  much  like  a  string  of  sausages.  Their  shape  is  governed 
by  the  regularity  of  the  fissures  or  cracks  in  which  they  are  found, 
and  by  the  ease  with  which  the  rocks  adjoining  them  will  dissolve. 
Since  limestone  carrying  magnesia  will  dissolve  very  readily,  ore  bodies 
in  lime  take  all  sorts  of  fantastic  shajaes,  but  porphyry,  granite,  quartz- 
ite,  and  the  like  have  more  regular  ore  bodies  because  they  dissolve 
but  little.  The  metals  are  rarely  found  in  the  pure  state.  Therefoi'e, 
ores  hav^e  to  be  treated  by  special  methods  to  get  the  metals  out  of 
them.  There  are  three  ways  of  doing  this,  leaching,  milling,  and 
smelting.  In  leaching,  water  is  used  in  connection  with  acids  or 
other  substances  which  will  dissolve  the  metals;  in  milling,  quick- 
silver alone  or  with  acids  is  used  to  hold  the  metals  without  dissolving 
them  ;  in  smelting,  the  ores  are  melted  in  smelters  and  certain  changes 
are  made  so  as  to  secure  the  metals. 

We  find  that  veins  of  the  preeious  metals  are  alivays  found 
in  connection  with  porphyry  dykes,  because  the  heat  from  the 
intruded  eruptive  rock  is  required  to  cause  the  collection  of 
the  minerals  in  the  veins.  We  find  that  veins  are  generally 
richer  near  the  surface  because  they  have  been  oxidized  or 
rusted,  and  that  ore  bodies  tvhich  have  pay  values  are  not 
continuous  but  occur  in  spots.  We  find  that  the  metals  rarely 
occur  in  the  metallic  state,  but  have  to  be  treated  to  make 
them  valuable. 


MIX  ERA L    R ES 0 UR CES 


45 


Mininff. — Mining'  is  done  either  through  tunnels  or 
shafts.  If  tiie  country  is  steep,  tunnels  are  driven  into 
the  hills  ;  if  the  ground  does  not  slope  sharplj',  shafts 
are  sunk.  Tunnels  are  generally  made  4  feet  wide  and 
6  feet  high,  and  are  driven  in  on  a  level  or  with  a  gentle 
upward  slope  sufficient  to  make  the  loaded  cars  run 
smoothly  as  they  come  out  on  the  track  which  is  laid  along 
the  bottom  of  the  tunnel.      Small  shafts  are  usually  the 


Fig.  22. 

Eureka,  a  typical  mining  camp.    On  the  riglit  are  the  hoisting  work.s  of  the 
Gemini  mine.     On  the  left  is  the  Kureka  Hill  mine. 


same  size  as  tunnels,  but  run  vertically  instead  of  horizon- 
tally. Out  of  these  the  rock  is  hoisted  by  a  windlass, 
whip,  whim,  or  other  hoisting  machinery.  When  the 
'•  prospect "'  (  whieh  is  tlie  name  given  to  a  claim  before 
much  work  is  done  upon  it)  becomes  a  mine,  the  shaft  is 
generally  enlarged  and  divided  into  compartments.  It  is 
timbered  up  all  around  to  prevent  pieces  of  rock  from  fall- 
ing on  the  heads  of  the  workmen  below.  Everv  hundred 
feet  down  the  shaft,  levels  like   tunnels  are  driven  out 


46 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


from  it  to  the  vein.  Ore  is  carried  out  through  them  to 
tlie  shaft  (Fig.  25).  The  tools  used  in  mining  are  picks, 
shovels,  drills,  gads,  hammers,  spoons,  blasting  powder, 
caps,  and  fuse.  Figure  24  shows  a  typical  prospecting 
rig.     Mines  are  shown  in  Figs.  22,  23,  24,  25. 

Mining  is  a  dangerous  business  and  men  are  paid  high 
tvages  because  of  the  risk  they  run. 


Fk;.  2:!. 

A  typical  mine  in  weslorn  Utah,  whifli  is  opened  by  tunnels.  Notice  the  dump 
in  front  of  each  tunnel.  The  blacksmith  sliop  is  built  into  the  hill  as  a 
protection  against  snow-slides.     The  trees  are  firs. 

Sortinfi,  A  ssayinr/,  and  Sampling.  —  The  ores  as  they  come  out  of 
the  mine  generally  have  to  be  picked  over  or  sorted  so  as  to  get  the 
valuable  parts  free  from  the  waste.  They  are  then  assayed  to  find  out 
their  values.  When  ores  are  shipped  and  sold  they  have  to  be  sampled. 
This  is  d(jne  by  taking  a  certain  proportion,  so  as  to  get  a  correct 
average,  and  then  assaying  the  samples  thus  obtained. 

Smdling.  —  This  consists  in  converting  the  ore  into  a  fluid  by  heat, 
and  mixing  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  silver,  lead,  gold,  and  copper 
will  be  reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  settle  to  the  bottom,  and  be 


MINERAL   RESOURCES 


47 


drawn  off  as  bullion  separate  from  the  incited  rock  vvhicli  is  called  slag. 
The  principal  smelters  are  the  (iennaiua,  c()nsuniing  about  1000  tons 
of  ore  per  day;  the  Bingham  Consolidated,  using  450  tons  a  day,  and 
the  Highland  Hoy  Co})per  smelter,  which  produces  al>()ut  10,000.000 
pounds  of  copper  a  year. 

Smelting  is  alsi)  a  d(Ui</( mas  Imaineas,  hecuusc  of  Iht  Juiiiex  tlial  arise 
from  the  furnaces. 


Fig.  24. 
The  regular  hoist  used  on  a  prospect  before  it  becomes  a  mine. 


Roastinff.  —  Many  ores  contain  sulphur,  which  is  injurious  to  the 
smelting  and  milling  processes.  Siudi  ores  are  put  in  a  furnace  and 
heated  till  they  do  not  quite  melt,  but  will  allow  the  sulphur  to  be 
driven  oft'  in  fumes.     This  is  an  artificial  method  of  rusting  the  ores. 

Concentrating.  —  This  is  a  process  used  to  separate  the  particles  of 
ore  from  the  rock  when  the  former  are  too  small  to  be  separated  by 
hand.  The  methods  now  in  use  depend  on  the  fact  that  the  metals 
and  most  of  their  compounds  (so  far  as  those  mentioned  are  con- 
cerned) are  nmch  heavier  than  the  rock  with  which  they  are  mixed, 


48 


UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 


and  so  can  be  separated  from  it  if  they  are  crushed  to  a  uniform  fine- 
ness, and  dropped  into  a  stream  of  water  which  is  made  to  flow  over 


Fig.  -'i. 
Vertical  section  of  tlio  South  Swansea  mine,  showing  the  shafts,  levels,  etc. 


a  shaking  table.     Sometimes  ore  is  concentrated   by  a  blast  of  air 
blowing  through  a  series  of  screens. 

Mills.  —  Mills  are  used  to  separate  metals  from  their  ores  and  from 
rocks  by  crushing  and  then  putting  them  in  acids  or  other  substances 
■which  will  dissolve  or  catch  the  metals  without  dissolving  the  other 
minerals  in  the  ores  (Fig.  2G). 


MINERAL    RESOURCES 


49 


Mining  Camps :  Binfjhnm.  —  Th'Mi  was  the  earliest  camp  opened  in 
Utah.  Silver  was  found  in  IS.")?.  Lead  was  first  discovered  at  Bing- 
ham in  1S(>5,  but  the  next  year  it  was  also  found  at  Alta.  The  first 
ore  came  from  the  Old  Jordan  at  Hingham.  In  this  camp  the  prin- 
cipal series  of  veins  runs  in  an  arc  of  a  circle  through  the  mountains 
from  the  Dalton  and  Lark  past  the  Old  Jordan.  In  at  least  one  of 
these  veins  the  ore  has  been  continuous  for  over  a  mile  and  to  a  depth 
of  over  1000  feet.     It   is  mostly  lead,  carrying  silver  and  some  gold. 


Fi(..  lit). 
Mercnr  Coiisuliihiteil  mill.     Oak  brush  uii  the  hills. 

Near  the  Old  Jordan  and  'IVl.'-iapli  mines  some  of  the  ore  bodies 
have  been  very  wide.  In  late  years  copper  has  begun  to  show  itself 
in  the  ores  as  greater  depth  has  been  reached  in  the  mines.  Adjoining 
the  Old  Jordan  lead  vein  is  a  very  wide  vein  of  gold-bearing  quartz, 
which  is  being  extensively  worked.  From  this  quartz  doubtless  came 
much  of  the  placer  gold  once  mined  in  Bingham  Canyon.  On  the 
north  of  the  Old  Jordan  the  mineral-bearing  region  widens  or  .splits, 
so  that  there  are  a  number  of  mines  widely  separated  from  one 
another.  On  the  main  vein  the  principal  mines  are  the  Old  Jordan, 
Niagara,  Spanish,  Old  Telegraph,  Yosemite,  and  Dalton  and  Lark. 
To  the  north  of  the  Old  Jordan  and  the  east  are  the  Bingham  Con- 
solidated and  Highland  Boy  mines.  Mines  located  on  other  veins  are 
found  scattered  over  lower  Bingham :  among  these  is  the  Tiewaukee. 


50  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

Stockton  and  Ophir  are  old  and  famous  mining  camps  which  have 
produced  much  lead  and  silver  ore.  They  lie  between  Bingham  and 
Mercur,  but  on  the  western  side  of  the  Oquirrhs. 

Mercur.  —  This  is  an  old  camp,  which  was  once  unsuccessfully 
worked  for  silver  ores.  In  recent  years  the  great  veins  of  very  low- 
grade  gold  ore,  which  formerly  could  not  be  worked  successfully,  have 
been  made  to  pay  by  the  use  of  the  cyanide  process.  The  veins  lie 
nearly  flat,  in  an  arc  of  a  circle.  The  ore  is  in  lime  in  connection  with 
a  porphyry  dyke.  The  veins  are  opened  for  a  distance  of  about  two 
miles,  and  are  composed  of  broken  pieces  of  limestone,  over  the  sur- 
face of  which  a  film  of  gold  has  been  deposited.  They  also  carry  con- 
siderable mercury  and  arsenic  in  places.  This  ore  is  broken  down 
much  the  same  as  a  gravel  bank  would  be,  and  is  carried  out  and 
dumped  into  huge  tanks,  into  which  water  carrying  cyanide  of  potash 
is  led.     This  dissolves  the  gold. 

The  principal  mines  in  this  camp  are  the  Mercur  Consolidated  and 
Sacramento.  They  handle  about  400,000  tons  of  ore  a  year.  The 
Mercur  Consolidated  mine  has  about  1,000,000  tons  of  ore  assaying 
$6  in  gold  to  the  ton.  The  cost  of  reduction  is  $;},  and  the  product 
is  about  1000  tons  a  day.  The  same  vein  occurs  on  the  other  side 
of  the  mountain,  at  Sunshine  and  the  West  Dip,  but  as  yet  no  great 
amount  of  gold  has  been  produced  there.  Mercur  is  a  town  of  about 
2jOO  people,  and  is  snugly  situated  in  a  little  gulch.  It  has  one  church, 
the  great  De  Lamar,  Sacramento,  and  Geyser-Marion  mills.  It  is 
reached  by  the  Mercur  Railroad  from  Fairfield  (Fig.  26). 

Tintic.  —  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  region  which  embraces 
Eureka,  Mammoth,  Silver  City,  and  Diamond.  It  lies  nearly  south 
of  Mercur  in  what  are  called  the  Tintic  Mountains,  a  prolongation  of 
the  Oquirrhs.  Most  of  the  ores  in  this  region  come  fi'om  a  small 
mountain  of  limestone  nearly  surrounded  by  porphyry,  into  which 
porphyry  dykes  have  been  thrust,  producing  veins  of  ore.  On  the 
southwest  side  of  this  mountain  at  Silver  City  the  porphyry  itself  has 
Ijeen  cracked,  and  the  fissures  filled  with  other  porphyry  of  later  origin. 
This  has  produced  mineral  veins  in  the  old  porphyry.  Eureka  is  a 
town  of  about  liOOO  people.  It  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the 
mountain.  There  are  two  large  mills  here,  two  railroads,  churches, 
and  many  business  houses.  The  chief  mines  in  this  place  lie  on  a 
nearly  vertical  vein  which  is  opened  for  about  half  a  mile  in  length, 


ML\ERAL    RESOURCES  51 

and  over  1500  feet  in  depth.  The  ores  carry  silver  and  copper  chiefly, 
though  there  is  some  lead  and  sold.  The  jirincipal  mines  are  the 
Gemini,  HiiUion-Heck,  Eureka  Hill,  and  t'entennial-P^ureka. 

Kniyhtscille  Ls  a  little  town  about  a  mile  east  from  Eureka,  and  lies 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  The  leading  mines  are  the  Godiva,  May 
Day,  Yankee  Consolidated,  and  Uncle  Sam.  The  ores  occur  in  a  flat 
vein,  and  are  mostly  silver-lead.  Farther  around  the  mountain,  but 
in  the  same  formation,  are  the  Sioux,  Utah,  Carisa,  etc. 

Mammoth  and  Robinson  are  two  towns  lying  in  a  little  alcove  on 
the  western  side  of  the  mountain,  adjoining  the  Mammoth  vein. 
This  is  a  broad  vein  in  limestone  carrying  copper,  silver,  and  gold, 
though  there  is  some  lead.  The  mines  here  are  the  Mammoth,  Grand 
Central.  Ajax,  and  Lower  Mammoth.  The  vein  is  opened  to  the 
depth  of  2100  feet,  and  has  miles  of  underground  workings.  The 
population  of  the  two  towns  is  about  l.")()0.  There  are  two  mills  and 
three  railroads  in  the  camp. 

Sillier  Citi/,  a  town  of  about  1000  people,  is  situated  about  a  mile 
south  of  Robinson  in  an  open  country.  Its  mines  are  all  in  por- 
phyry. The  two  principal  veins,  the  Swansea  and  Sunbeam,  are 
about  a  mile  apart,  and  run  nearly  north  and  south,  Init  parallel. 
The  Swansea  carries  silver-lead  ore  and  the  SunV)eam  the  same,  but 
with  considerable  cojiper.  South  of  the  Sunbeam  is  Treasure  Hill, 
a  small  mountain  of  porphyry,  containing  several  good  veins.  On  the 
contact  between  porjihyry  and  lime,  south  of  the  Star  mine,  is  the 
Dragon  which  has  very  great  bodies  of  iron  ore.  This  deposit  has 
furnished  many  thousands  of  tons  of  iron.  The  Star  mine  lies  be- 
tween the  Dragon  and  the  Mammoth  mines.  It  has  produced  much 
silver-lead  ore,  and  also  contains  large  bodies  of  low  grade  gold. 
The  chief  mines  here  are  the  Star  and  Swansea  (Fig.  25). 

Park-  Cili/  is  located  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Wasatch,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  7000  feet.  It  contains  about  4000  people,  has  several 
churches  and  mills,  one  sampler,  and  one  zinc  smelter.  The  principal 
Vein  in  this  camp  is  called  the  Ontario.  It  runs  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Bingham  series  of  veins,  and  is  ojiened  to  a  depth  of  1700 
feet.  The  ore  is  mostly  silver-lead,  and  occurs  in  very  large  quan- 
tities. The  vi'iu  seems  to  be  a  contact  between  lime  or  porphyry  and 
quartzite,  and  has  been  opened  up  for  a  distance  of  nearly  two  miles. 
The  principal  mines  are  the  Ontario,  Daly  West,  and  Silver  King. 


52  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

All  the  mines  here  are  wet,  and  so  have  to  be  drained  by  pumping. 
'J'here  are  several  veins  in  the  camp.  Quite  a  number  of  other  prop- 
erties have  produced  considerable  ore. 

Alta  is  one  of  the  first  camps  which  were  ojjened  in  the  state.  It 
is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Wasatch,  west  of  Park  City,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  8500  feet.  At  one  time  it  was  a  large  town,  but  has  been 
wiped  out  several  times  by  snow-slides  and  fii'es.  It  lies  in  the  midst 
of  the  grandest  scenery  in  the  Wasatch.  A  tramway  runs  down  to 
the  valley  and  connects  with  the  railroads.  The  largest  mines  are 
the  Vallejo,  Flagstaff,  and  Emma.  The  Grizzly  now  produces  the 
most  ore.  JMillious  of  dollars'  worth  of  ore  have  been  produced  here, 
containing  much  silver  and  lead.  The  veins  are  in  lime,  and  have 
been  developed  down  to  the  underlying  granite. 

Frisco  lies  in  the  heart  of  the  desert  mountains  of  central  Utah, 
nearly  west  of  Beaver  and  Marysvale.  The  elevation  is  about  7000 
feet.  The  O.  S.  L.  R.  R.  reaches  this  camp.  The  veins  run  mostly 
northwest  and  southeast,  and  are  in  lime  for  tlic  most  part.  In 
places  they  widen  oiit  into  immense  ore  bodies.  The  llornsilver  is 
the  leading  mine.  The  ore  is  chiefly  silver-lead.  There  are  other 
veins  in  porphyry,  quartzite,  and  lime  which  carry  much  copper. 
Among  these  are  the  Cactus,  O.K.,  and  Copper  Ranch.  The  Atlas 
mine,  located  near  ]\Iilford,  has  produced  much  silver,  lead,  and  gold. 

The  Star  District  in  the  Mineral  range,  east  of  Milford,  has  pro- 
duced very  much  silver-lead  ore  from  the  old  Star  mine.  Th(^  mineral 
occurs  in  lime  in  very  large  chambers,  and  carries  much  iron.  This 
camp  is  now  being  revived,  and  bids  fair  to  become  a  great  producer. 

Indian  Creek,  near  Beaver,  has  considerable  gold  ores. 

Marijsvale  lies  east  of  Mt.  Belknap.  The  mines  are  in  the  midst  of 
rugged  mountains  (Fig.  17).  They  have  produced  some  gold,  lead, 
silver,  and  mercury.  Alum  is  found  in  the  Sevier  Canyon  below 
Marysvale. 

Gold  Mountain,  or  Kimherhj,  which  lies  at  0000  feet  elevation  on  the 
north  side  of  Mt.  Belknap,  really  belongs  to  the  Marysvale  region. 
Its  principal  veins  lie  around  this  peak,  rnnning  northwest  and  south- 
east, and  carry  gold  ores.  There  are  two  mills  here.  The  Sevier, 
Annie  Laurie,  and  Breckenridge  are  the  chief  mines. 

Iron  County.  —  This  region,  especially  at  Iron  City,  has  great  de- 
posits of  iron  ore.     The  mineral  is  found  on  the  surface  in  great  blow- 


MINERAL   RESOURCES  53 

outs,  or  conical  peaks  and  ridges.  Tlieie  are  about  3,000,000  tons  of 
ore  in  sight,  wiiicli  run  from  45%  to  G0%  iron.  Witliout  doubt,  silver, 
lead,  or  copper  will  be  found  below.  In  early  days,  furnaces  were 
erected  at  the  mines,  and  a  fine  quality  of  iron  was  made,  but  lack  of 
railroad  facilities  prevented  further  development. 

Silver  Heef.  —  This  is  a  peculiar  section  because  of  its  silver  ores 
lying  in  Hat  veins  in  sandstone.  The  camp  is  located  in  the  hot 
region  near  St.  George,  south  of  the  Pine  Valley  Mountains,  at  an 
elevation  of  3000  feet.  The  leading  mines  are  the  Barbee  and  Walker, 
Stormont,  etc.  The  ores  are  easily  treated  in  local  mills  by  what  is 
known  as  the  free-milling  process. 

Din/iraif  lies  on  the  northern  end  of  the  Dugway  Mountains.  There 
are  several  veins  running  out  from  a  porphyry  core,  and  carrying 
much  low-grade  silver-lead  ore.  About  ten  miles  north  of  Dugway  is 
the  Granite  range,  which  has  numerous  veins  of  silver-lead  ore.  In 
the  southern  end  of  the  Dugway  range  is  Detroit  district.  This  has 
many  veins  of  iron  ore.  There  are  also  a  few  veins  of  copper  ore, 
some  of  which  carry  bismuth.  Years  ago  a  copper  smelter  was 
erected  at  the  Warm   Springs  to  work  these  ores. 

Fish  Springs.  —  This  range  lies  east  of  the  Deep  Creek  Mountains, 
in  the  desert.  On  the  northern  end  there  are  two  or  more  beautiful 
veins  of  high-grade  silver-lead  ore.  The  veins  run  about  northwest 
and  southeast  and  are  rather  small.  The  Utah  and  Galena  are  the 
chief  mines. 

Deep  Creek  Moiinlains. — On  the  western  edge  of  I'tah  rises  the 
highest  peak  (except  in  tiie  Uintas)  in  Utah.  Around  it  lie  many 
mines  and  mineral  deposits,  particularly  at  Granite,  Dry  Canyon, 
Clifton,  Gold  Ilill,  and  Dutc-li  Mountain.  The  veins  at  Granite  carry 
gold;  tho.se  at  Dry  Cunynii  ha\f  some  silver-lead  ores.  Clifton  lies  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  range  to  the  north.  It  has  a  series  of  veins 
in  granite  which  goes  well  in  silver  and  lead ;  another  series,  also  in 
granite,  which  go  high  in  copper  and  gold;  and  still  another  .series, 
which  is  in  lime  on  or  near  the  contact  with  granite,  and  carries  much 
silver-lead  ore.  The  Midas  mine  is  near  Clifton.  The  ore  lies  in  lime 
and  carries  gold.  A  mill  is  located  on  this  property.  Gold  Hill  lies 
three  miles  north  of  Clifton.  It  has  three  sets  of  veins.  The  first 
consists  chiefly  of  gold  and  copper  in  marble;  the  second  has  a  .series 
of  copper-gold  ores  on  the  contact  of  a  porphyry  mountain  with  lime; 


54  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMEyT 

the  third  series  is  close  to  tlie  contact  of  lime  and  quartzite,  and  cen- 
tres in  an  isolated  peak  which  is  honeycombed  with  veins  of  gold, 
iron,  lead,  and  arsenic.  The  Cane  Spring  is  the  leading  mine  in  the 
first  series.  The  Alverde  is  the  main  property  in  the  second  series, 
and  is  the  richest  mine  in  the  camp.  The  Gold  Hill  is  the  chief 
mine  in  the  third  series.  There  is  a  gold  mill  in  this  camp.  Dntch 
Monntain  is  located  just  north  of  Gold  Hill.  There  are  a  number  of 
veins  here  carrying  silver,  lead,  and  copper.  The  copper  veins  are  on 
the  south.  The  silver-lead  veins  run  in  an  arc  of  a  circle  and  are 
in  lime.  The  Mon.ster,  Consolidated,  and  Uncle  Sam  are  the  chief 
prospects.  On  the  western  side  of  the  Deep  Creek  range,  nearly 
opposite  Granite,  are  several  veins  of  gold  ore  in  quartzite. 

Other  Localities.  —  Sixteen  miles  west  of  St.  George  is  an  old  copper 
nune  located  in  the  Beaver  Dam  range.  It  produces  much  copper, 
and  has  a  smelter  located  at  St.  (ieorge  for  i-educing  its  ores.  State- 
line  is  a  promising  new  gold  camp.  It  lies  on  the  edge  of  Nevada. 
The  Wa  Wa  Mountains,  west  of  Frisco,  have  large  bodies  of  iron  and 
some  lead  and  silver  ores.  The  West  Tintic  range,  situated  some 
twenty-five  miles  west  of  Silver  City,  has  considerable  silver-lead  and 
gold  ores.  The  leading  mine  is  the  Scotia.  Still  west  of  the  West 
Tintic  range  is  Desert  Monntain,  witii  its  numerous  copper  veins. 
A  few  miles  north  of  the  Scotia,  and  in  the  West  Tintic  Mountains,  is 
Death  Canyon.  There  are  some  good  copper  and  silver-lead  ores  here. 
West  of  Grantsville,  in  the  Aqui  range,  is  the  old  Jennings  mine, 
which  has  marketed  much  silver-lead  ore.  Northwest  of  Grantsville, 
along  the  edge  of  the  lake,  are  the  Lakeside  Mountains.  Large 
quantities  of  lead  ore  occur  here.  North  of  Ogden,  in  the  lofty 
cliffs,  considerable  silver-lead  ore  is  found.  The  ores  seem  to  lie 
mostly  in  rather  flat  veins  in  lime.  Near  Willard  is  a  large  deposit 
of  iron  ore.  Other  fine  ores  of  iron  are  also  found  near  Morgan, 
in  the  Norway  iron  mines.  In  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  state 
lies  Park  Valley,  with  (piite  a  deposit  of  gold  ores. 

Questions.  —  Name  the  cliiff  niiiicnils  deposited  in  veins.  Ex- 
plain how  they  are  deposited.  What  are  base  ores?  Dry  ores? 
How  do  ore  bodies  occur?  What  is  their  value?  How  do  limestone 
deposits  differ  from  other  dejiosits?  Are  the  metals  found  in  the 
pure  state?     How  is  mining  done?     What  is  a  level,  shaft,  tunnel? 


MiyEUAi.  nEsornrEs  55 

What  tools  ai'f  used  in  iiiiuiiij^?  What  is  sorting?  Assaying? 
Sampling?  Smelting?  Roasting?  Concentrating?  What  are  the 
leading  smelters?  What  was  the  first  mining  eanip  opened  in  Utah? 
Wlien  was  silver  first  found  in  IHah  ?  J^'ad?  Describe  Bingham, 
its  principal  veins,  mines,  and  products;  also  in  the  same  way  Stock- 
ton, Ophir,  Mercur,  Eureka,  Knightsville,  Mammoth,  Silver  City, 
Park  City,  Alta,  American  Fork,  Frisco,  Marysvale,  Gold  Mountain, 
Iron  County,  Silver  Reef,  Dugway,  Fisli  S|)riiigs,  Clifton,  Cold  Hill, 
Dutch  Mountain,  etc. 

Skakcm  Questions.  —  Why  are  not  veins  of  minerals  found  in 
lava  in  Utah?  Why  are  not  ore  bodies  continuous?  Why  are  not 
the  metals  found  in  the  pure  state?  What  is  a  windlass?  Whip? 
Whim?  Moisting  plant?  Describe  a  pick,  shovel,  and  all  other  tools 
used  in  mining.  What  is  an  automatic  sampler?  Why  is  lead  used 
m  smelting  gold  and  silver  ores?  Why  is  it  not  used  in  copper 
smelters?  Why  are  silica,  lime,  and  iron  used  in  smelting?  Describe 
the  concentrating  process.  Describe  the  milling  process?  How  do 
you  suppose  gold  was  deposited  only  on  the  outside  of  the  rocks  at 
Mercur?  Are  there  any  smelters,  mills,  or  concentrating  plants  near 
j'ou?  If  so,  find  out  all  about  the  way  they  treat  the  ores.  What  is 
slag?     Bullion?    Matte? 


CHAPTER   IV 

GREAT   SALT   LAKE 

Great  Salt  Lake.  —  In  the  first  part  of  this  book,  under 
the  head  of  Geological  History,  we  found  that  the  Great 
Basin,  extending  from  the  Wasatch  to  the  Sierras,  was 
occupied  by  an  immense  lake.  Afterwards  this  was  di- 
vided, forming  a  lake  next  to  the  Wasatch  and  another  next 
to  the  Sierras.  To  that  eastern  lake  in  its  later  history  the 
name  Bonneville  has  been  given,  after  an  early  explorer, 
Captain  Bonneville.  It  appears  that  this  basin,  when  first 
formed,  had  an  outlet  possibly  to  the  south.  At  any  rate 
the  basin  appears  to  have  been  dry,  which  may  have  been 
caused  by  an  excessively  dry  or  hot  climate  at  that  time. 
But  as  the  Ice  Age  came  on,  either  there  was  a  great 
increase  in  the  moisture,  or  the  climate  became  cooler,  or 
both,  and  so  the  basin  slowly  filled  with  water. 

As  the  lake  grew  deeper  the  waves  formed  beaches  one 
above  the  other  on  the  shore.  The  size  of  these  beaches 
was  proportioned  to  the  time  the  water  remained  at  the 
same  level.  At  last  the  lake  rose  so  high  that  it  became 
a  body  of  water  1200  feet  deep  and  covered  18,000  square 
miles.  It  spread  over  most  of  the  present  settled  part  of 
Utah  west  of  the  Wasatch.  When  the  water  reached  this 
point  it  ran  over  the  rim  of  the  Great  Basin  at  its  lowest 
point  which  was  Red  Rock  Gap  (Fig.  27)  at  the  northern 
end  of  Cache  Valley.     There  the  waters  formed  a  stream 

56 


GREAT   SALT  LAKE 


57 


about  a  quarter  of  a  uiile  wide  wliich  flowed  out  into  the 
Portneuf  River  and  thenc-e  into  the  Snake,  ('olunil)ia,  and 
the  Pacific.  The  river  cut  its  way  (h)\vn  tli rough  the 
rocks  and  debris  about  400  feet.  As  this  was  a  slow  pro- 
cess, the  lake  left  beaches  along  the  shore  as  it  fell  (Figs. 
27,  28,  29,  32).  These  shore  lines  were  laid  over  the  old 
ones  made  when  the  lake  was  rising. 


-<>' ',.. 


Fig.  27. 

Old  outlet  of  Great  Salt  Lake  at  Red  Roek  Gap.  The  level  part  in  the  middle 
is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  was  the  bottom  of  the  river.  The 
hills  in  the  foreirroniid  were  cliffs  on  the  edge  of  the  river.  The  table-land 
in  the  backj^round  was  the  shore  when  the  lake  was  the  highest. 

At  all  stages  of  the  history  of  this  body  i)f  water  the  waves 
and  currents  formed  bars,  beaches,  and  deltas  of  the  most 
magnificent  proportions.  The  greatest  bars  are  those  at 
the  })oint  of  the  mountain  south  of  Draper,  and  at  Stockton 
(Fig.  46).  The  largest  beach  was  the  delta  formed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Provo  I'iver  whifh  is  now  called  the  Provo 
Bench.  This  was  fornu'd  when  the  lake  was  at  its  lowest 
level  while  it  still  flowed  through  the  outlet.      Doubtless 


58 


UTAH    STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


the  water  was  at  tliis  point  a  very  long  time  till  the  close  of 
the  Ice  Age.  After  that  the  evaporation  from  its  snrface 
took  away  more  water  than  flowed  into  the  lake  and  so 
there  wt\s  no  water  to  flow  out.  The  surface  of  the  water 
then  grew  lower  year  by  year  because  of  the  evaporation. 
As  mineral  matter  which  is  dissolved  does  not  evaporate 
as  the  water  does,  so  the  water  that  is  left  behind  will 
contain  more  and  more  of  it  as  the  years  go  by.      This  is 


Fig.  28. 

The  old  shore  line  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  called  the  Provo  Beach,  about  500  feet 
above  the  present  level  of  the  lake,  and  about  200  feet  wide  here.  Sage- 
brush in  the  foreground.     Tips  of  the  Wasatch  in  the  background. 

true  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  for  it  has  been  a  very  long  time 
since  the  lake  had  an  outlet.  Now  the  water  contains 
25^0  of  solid  matter  dissolved  in  it,  or  \  of  the  whole  is 
salt.  Now  the  lake  covers  scarcely  1700  square  miles,  or 
less  than  a  tenth  of  its  former  size.  It  is  about  70  miles 
long  by  30  wide.  The  average  depth  is  about  12  feet. 
Since  the  Ice  Age  the  bed  has  been  filled  with  about  200 
feet  of  sand  and  mud. 

When  the  lake  was  fresh,  its  shores  were   frequented 
by  musk  oxen  and  other  animals  like  the  moose  and  cari- 


GREAT   SALT  LAKE 


59 


bou,  and  its  surface  by  ducks,  geese,  and  swans.  Tlu; 
water  was  full  of  salmon,  wliitefisli,  trout,  graylings, 
chubs,  and  suckers.  After  the  lake  ceased  U)  tlow  through 
its  outlet  the  salmon  could  not  get  back  into  the  lake 
(they  go  to  the  ocean  every  year),  and  so  came  no  more. 
It  is  probable  that  the  graylings  and  whitetish  perished 
as  the  water  became  briny,  for  the  streams  were  too  small 
for  them.  But  the  other  fish  ascended  the  streams  which 
flowed  into  the  lake,  and  have  remained  there  ever  since. 


Fic.  U!t. 

Old  beaches  of  the  lake  near  Chaiiibers'  station.     The  iipperniust  beach  was 
the  highest  i>oint  ever  reached  by  the  lake. 


It  would  be  impossible  to  explain  the  presence  of  these  fisli 
in  the  streams  of  I'tali,  unless  we  knew  that  the  streams 
were  all  once  connected  with  the  same  fresli-water  lake. 

At  present,  contrary  to  all  expectation,  (ireat  Salt  Lake 
contains  more  life  than  any  other  body  of  water  of  its  size 
in  the  world,  but  there  are  no  fish  or  large  animals  in  it. 
The  animal  life  consists  of  beautiful  little  shrimps  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long,  of  which  there  are  hundreds  in 
every  bucket  of  water  in  June.  I'jx^n  these  shrimps  there 
preys  a  little  worm,  the  lai'va  of  ;i  small  t1\ .  These  worms 
also  live  in  the  water.      W'lu'ii  llie  lai\a'  <ro  through  the 


60 


UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


transformation  stage  they  attach  themselves  to  the  little 
globular,  yellowish  green  seaweeds  which  are  about  a 
quarter  to  lialf  an  inch  long,  and  are  present  in  the  water 
by  millions.  At  last  the  larvte  hatch  out  into  little  greasy 
flies  which  sit  upon  the  water  in  black  masses  in  places. 
Upon  these  the  seagulls  feed,  though  they  are  not  their 
main  food.     The  shrimps  feed  on  the  seaweeds. 


Fig.  :'m. 
Saltair,  the  ;;reatesl  bathiiii;  result  uu  the  lake. 


Since  Great  Salt  Lake  has  no  outlet,  its  surface  varies 
from  year  to  year,  according  to  the  amount  of  rainfall  and 
evaporation.  The  annual  variation  is  about  sixteen  inches. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  the  lake  will  rise  a  foot  for 
every  increase  of  an  inch  in  rainfall  above  the  normal,  and 
will  fall  in  like  proportion  for  every  decrease.  It  is,  there- 
fore, twelve  times  as  sensitive  to  climatic  changes  as  the 
rainfall.     From  this  it  was  demoiistrated  years  ago  that 


GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


61 


climatic  changes  go  in  cycles  or  periods.  The  shortest 
cycle  is  about  three  years  long.  These  cycles  are  also 
parts  of  still  greater  ones,  and  include  about  three  of  the 
shorter  periods.  The  larger  periods  are  parts  of  still 
greater  ones.  Since  historic  times  began  (ireat  Salt  Lake 
has  varied  sixteen  feet  in  its  surface.  In  the  winter  of 
1901-2  it  was  at  least  two  feet  lower  than  tlic  lowest 
point  ever  known. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  the  increased  saving  in  the  use 
of  water  for  irrigation  has  greatly  lessened  the  amount 


Fk;.  .il. 

Hat  Isliiiid  on  the  desert  side  of  the  lake.  Desert  niouutaitis  harely  visihle  in 
the  distance.  This  is  the  nesliuj^-place  of  myriads  of  seagulls,  pelieans, 
and  cranes. 

flowing  into  the  lake,  so  that  the  surface  no  longer  follows 
the  variation  in  the  rainfall,  but  has  steadily  decreased  in 
size.  This  will  coutinuc  until  such  time  as  the  reduced  in- 
flow into  the  lake  caused  by  irrigation  equals  the  anu")unt 
of  evaporation  from  the  lessciu'd  area  of  the  lakt^  Then 
the  surface  will  roniaiii  stationary  or  follow  tlu'  climatic 
variation.  Should  there  be  still  further  increase  in  the 
saving  of  water  for  irrigation,  the  lake  will  continue  to  fall 
under  ordinary  climatic  conditions.      The  waters  of  the 


&2 


ITAII    STATE   SUPPLEMENT 


lake  are  so  dense  that  they  kill  all  vegetation  within  their 
reach  on  the  shore,  and  all  fresh-water  life  in  the  streams 
tliat  How  into  tlie  lake  as  far  as  the  salt  water  can  go. 
There  is  nothing  but  Hies  and  seaweeds  in  the  water  to  eat, 
and  therefore  birds  do  not  frequent  the  region  except  to 
nest  on  the  islands.  Tliere  are  several  islands,  such  as  Hat, 
Carrington,  Strong's  Knob,  Gunnison,  etc.,  which  are  the 
nesting-places  of  myriads  of  gulls,  pelicans,  and  cranes. 
Valuable  guano  has  accumulated  in  some  of  these  places. 


^^^^H 

1.."'                                ..^  ">uJ^W 
•;n.  •     \     -*                     ■"           ^  . 

^^^H 

Fig.  »2. 

Great  Sail  Lake  from  the  Provo  Beach  back  of  Black  Roc-k.    Stansbury  Island 

in  tlie  distance.     The  old  Black  Rock  bathiufi  resort  below. 

Thougli  the  air  is  veiy  invigorating  and  healthful  on 
account  of  the  salt  spray,  there  is  very  little  sailing  upon 
the  lake  because  of  the  unpleasant  eiTect  of  the  salt  which 
crystallizes  upon  the  body  and  clothes  in  thick  scales  from 
every  drop  of  water  which  strikes  tliem.  Salt  water  soon 
destroys  leather  and  rubber  and  causes  disagreeable  cracks 
in  the  skin  wlien  it  is  not  washed  off  by  fresh  water. 
The  waves  are  very  heavy  and  roll  lazily  even  in  severe 
storms. 


GRKAT   SALT   LAKE  63 

The  shores  of  the  hike  are  in  many  phaces  very  beauti- 
ful, and  the  ishmds  are  remarkable  for  their  silenee  and 
solitude. 

One  of  the  greatest  pastimes  of  the  people  of  I'tah, 
from  the  earliest  period,  has  been  bathing  in  the  lake. 
Very  expensive  resorts  have  been  built  upon  its  shores, 
the  most  magnificent  being  Saltair  (Fig.  30).  The  water 
is  so  dense  that  a  person  floats  in  it  with  ease,  having 
nearly  one-third  of  his  body  above  the  surface.  It  is, 
however,  very  easy  to  drown  because  the  greater  density 
of  the  head  tends  to  tip  the  body  over,  and  consequently 
some  elTort  is  reijuired  to  keep  erect.  The  water  is  very 
irritating  when  drawn  into  the  lungs.  The  pleasure  of 
swimming  in  this  peculiar  water  is  very  great,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  unusual  sensation  of  floating  so  easily,  but 
also  because  of  the  stimulating  effect  of  bathing  in  so 
salty  water.  There  are  about  200,000  people  who  go  out 
to  the  lake  annually.  The  present  elevation  of  the  sur- 
face is  about  4205  feet  (Fig.  30). 

Great  Salt  Lake  ivas  preceded  hy  a  still  larger  lake  ivhich 
extended  to  the  Sierras.  This  lake  dried  up.  at  least  par- 
tially, and  its  bed  was  divided  hy  an  elevation  of  the  land  in 
central  Nevada.  Afterward  both  parts  filed  with  water. 
The  eastern  lake  was  called  Bonneville.  This  overflowed  in 
the  Ice  Aye,  and  after  that  partly  dried  tip  again.  It  is 
valuable  for  the  opportii/ilfy  if  J'linn'shesfor  bathing,  and  for 
the  amou)tt  of  xalf  produced  (dung  its  shores. 

Questions.  —  From  what  did  Great  Salt  Lake  come  and  how  was 
it  formed?  What  preceded  it?  Did  it  ever  have  an  outlet  and  where? 
Why  did  it  rise?  Why  did  it  fall?  What  evidence  have  we  of  its 
former  level?  What  was  its  greatest  size,  wliat  is  it  now?  Where 
are  the  greatest  bars,  beaches,  and  deltas?  Why  did  it  become  salty? 


64  VTAJI   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

What  was  its  greatest  depth  and  what  is  the  average  now?  What 
kind  of  life  existed  on  and  in  its  waters,  and  why  do  we  know  it?  Is 
there  any  life  in  its  waters  and  what?  Does  the  snrface  of  the  lake 
remain  stationary?  If  not,  why  not?  What  do  you  know  of  cycles? 
What  eft'ect,  if  any,  does  irrigation  have  on  the  lake?  How  much 
solid  matter  is  in  the  water  in  percentage  and  total  quantity?  What 
kind  of  life  exists  on  its  waters  and  islands?  How  much  sailing  is 
there  on  the  lake  and  why?  How  does  the  water  act  toward  bathers 
in  comjiarisou  with  fresh  water?  What  attractions  have  its  shores? 
What  is  the  chief  pastime  of  those  who  frequent  its  shores?  What  is 
the  elevation  above  the  sea  ?  Can  a  person  drown  easily  in  its  waters  ? 
Skarch  Qup:stions.  —  Would  artesian  wells  be  possible  under  the 
old  lake  beds  and  wliy?  How  do  we  know  that  the  bed  of  the  lake 
was  dry  at  first?  How  do  we  trace  its  history  since?  Of  what  value 
has  the  old  lake  been  to  the  peojile  of  Utah  ?  Will  the  lake  dry  up 
entirely.  If  not,  why  not?  What  would  cause  it  to  overflow  again? 
Can  you  explain  why  so  salty  water  supports  so  nmch  life?  What 
three  elements  are  there  in  the  life  which  balance  each  other  and  are 
essential  to  this  balance?  When  will  the  water  of  the  lake  begin  to 
deposit  salt  on  its  bed? 


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CHAPTER    V 

CLIMATE    AND    LIFE 

Climate. — The  climate  of  a  region  is  governed  by  the 
elevation  above  the  sea,  the  latitude,  the  rainfall,  and 
the  prevailing  winds.  Since  Utah  lias  all  elevations  from 
2700  feet  above  the  sea  to  a  region  of  almost  perpetual 
snow,  her  climate  varies  from  that  of  the  Tropics  to  the 
Arctic.  Our  winters  vary  from  almost  nothing  to  eight 
months  long.  So  a  person  living  in  Utjj.li  can  have_almpst 
any  temperature  he  wants  at  any  time 'of  the  year.  When 
the  heat  becomes  too  intense  in  the  lower  valleys  in  the 
summer-time,  he  needs  only  to  take  a  few  hours'  ride  into 
the  mountains  to  get  where  it  freezes  every  night  of  the 
year.  One  peculiarity  of  Utah  weather  is  that  the  rain- 
fall is  everywliere  comparatively  slight,  most  of  it  falling 
in  the  winter-time  and  piling  up  in  the  mountains  as  snow. 
The  air  is  therefore  bracing  and  dry.  and  is  very  invigo- 
rating and  stimulating  to  the  system.  liecause  of  its  clear- 
ness the  air  makes  all  things  seem  near  and  sharply 
defined  (Figs.   9,  11,  15,  28,  32). 

In  the  *S'^  Geon/c  region  the  annual  temiicrature  is 
about  60°  Fall.,  and  the  rainfall  seven  iiuhes.  There 
is  an  occasional  fall  of  snow,  and  severe  frosts  occur  so 
that  oranges  and  lemons  will  not  grow  and  even  figs  are 
often  killed  (Fig.  48). 

In  the  Green  River  region  the  laint'all  is  only  about 
F  66 


GO  UTAH    STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

four  inches  per  annum  and  the  temperature  iicarlj  that  of 
Salt  Lake  City. 

In  Central  Utah,  outside  of  the  mountains,  the  average 
rainfall  is  less  than  eight  inches  per  annum  and  the  annual 
temperature  about  52°.  Here  the  peach  and  the  common 
fruits,  inchidiiig  thelCnglisli  walnut  and  almond,  thrive,  but 
the  fig,  orange,  and  lemon  will  not  grow.  The  winters 
are  al)out  six  weeks  long,  and  begin  about  the  first  of 
Januar\".  Tlie  falls  continue  to  the  close  of  tlie  year,  with 
clear  skies,  cold  and  bracing  air,  and  little  wind.  The 
coldest  night  in  the  winter  seldom. reaches  zero.  The  sum- 
mers are  generally  tempered  by  occasional  showers.  Since 
there  is  little  wind,  there  is  less  dust  tlian  would  be  ordi- 
naril}^  expected  during  the  summer-time.  There  is  a  brief 
period  in  February  and  March  when  the  roads  are  muddy 
from  the  melting  snows  and  occasional  rains.  There  is 
almost  no  sleioliino-  because  the  snow  seldom  lies  long  on 
the  ground.  During  tlie  rest  of  tlie  year  the  roads  are 
generall}'  fine. 

In  the  hijjher  valleys  of  the  mountains,  such  as  Parley's 
Park,  Weber,  Cache,  and  the  U})per  IJear  River,  there  is 
sleighing  several  months  in  the  year.  The  temperature 
sometimes  goes  down  to  20°  below  zero.  Tlie  summer 
climate  is  cool  and  delightful. 

There  are  few  places  even  in  the  higher  mountains  where 
the  rainfall  exceeds  twenty  inches  per  annum.  Salt  Lake 
City  has  the  most  humid  climate  of  any  town  in  the  val- 
leys, because  it  is  situated  on  the  southeastern  corner  of 
Great  Salt  Lake  and  with  high  mountains  on  the  east. 
The  prevailing  winds  bring  moisture  in  from  the  lake 
because  they  are  from  the  northwest.  The  rainfall  is 
about  17  inches  per  annum. 


CLIMATE  AM)   LIFE  67 

The  valleys  are  generally  warm  and  free  from  high 
winds,  becanse  of  the  lofty  mountains  bordering  them, 
and  because  of  thcii-  direction.  Cyclones  are  almost  un- 
known in  I'tah,  though  occasional  gusts  of  wind  having 
a  velocity  of  fifty  miles  an  hour  come  down  from  tlie 
canyons  or  cross  the  valleys. 

The  climate  of  U(<ih  varies  in  temperature  from  tliat  of 
the  Tropics  to  that  <f  4he  Frigid  Zone,  aecorcHng  to  the 
elevation.  The  rainfall  is  verji  small,  and  the  air  is  dry. 
The  region  is  >ji(ifc  free  from  sfornis  hecaase  the  Great 
Basin  is  reallg  an  isolated  plateau  aroand  whose  base  the 
storms  pasSy  mostly  to  the  north,  seldoui  rising  over  its  crest. 

Questions.  —  What  governs  the  climate  of  a  region?  Why  has 
Utah  such  a  varied  climate?  Wliot  is  peculiar  m  our  climate? 
Describe  the  climate  of  the  St.  (ieorge  region.  Green  River  region, 
central  Utah,  higlier  vallej-s.  Salt  Lake  City.  Why  is  Utah  free  from 
cyclones  ? 

Search  Qckstions. —  Why  is  it  always  cool  in  the  shade  in 
Utah?  From  what  direction  does  the  moisture  come  which  is  found 
in  Utah  ?  How  does  the  Weather  Bureau  predict  the  coming  of 
storms?  Is  there  anything  in  the  situation  of  Utah  that  makes  it 
specially  hard  to  predict  with  certainty?  How  is  tlie  annual  tempera- 
ture found?  Rainfall?  Relative  humidity?  Wind  movement? 
What  is  the  rainfall  of  your  region?  Describe  the  climate  where 
you  live. 

Soil. — There  is  no  part  of  I  lah  which  has  a  black, 
loamy  soil,  except  the  borders  of  marshes  and  some  of 
the  higii  mountain  meadows.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
for  thousands  of  years  the  climate  has  been  much  the  same 
as  now,  and  the  vegetation  has  been  too  scanty,  so  that 
there  has  been  no  accumulation  of  decayed  plants  to  form 
loam.  The  winds  also  blow  the  dead  herbage  away  every 
season.     Outside  of  these  limited  areas  of  loam  the  soil 


68  UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

of  Utah  throujrhout  the  Great  Basin  region  is  gravelly, 
except  the  centres  of  all  tlie  valleys  where  there  are  large 
bodies  of  alkaline  clay  soil.  Tiiis  gravel  is  very  porous, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  to  crops.  The  clay  soil  is  just 
the  reverse.  In  southern  Utah,  in  the  St.  George  region, 
red  sand  prevails.  The  rivers  here  are  roily  and  the 
irrigating  water  carries  mud  over  the  sand,  so  that  the 
soil  becomes  well  adapted  to  crops.  In  eastern  Utah  there 
is  a  soft  clay,  which  supports  fair  crops,  but  easily  washes 
away. 

Questions.  —  ^Vhat  part  of  Utah  has  a  loamy  soil?  Why  does 
not  all  of  Utah  have  such  a  soil  ?  What  is  the  general  character  of 
the  soil  ?  Wliat  part  of  Utah  has  a  clay  soil?  What  is  the  soil  of 
your  region  ? 

Life  Zones.  —  Tlie  accom[)anying  map  (Fig.  33)  shows 
the  distribution  of  animals  and  plants  in  Utah.  There 
are  but  two  life  zones,  the  Tropical  and  Temperate. 
What  has  been  called  the  third,  the  Frigid,  is  really  but  a 
modification  of  tlie  Temperate.  The  Tropical  Zone  is 
limited  to  not  less  than  60°  to  56°  annual  temperature, 
and  includes  the  so-called  Subtropical.  Its  characteristic 
plant  in  Utah  is  tlie  creosote  liush.  Other  plants  which 
also  grow  in  this  region  are  the  Joshua  (Fig.  38)  and  the 
bush  cactus  (Fig.  37).  This  zone  is  found  only  in  the 
St.  George  region  (Fig.  48). 

The  Temperate  Zone  is  divided  into  the  Lower,  Middle, 
Upper,  and  Frigid  (called  alpine  in  our  region). 

The  Lower  Temperate  is  limited  by  an  annual  temper- 
ature of  not  less  than  50°.  Its  characteristic  ])lant  is  the 
juniper  or  white  cedar,  as  it  is  called  in  Utah  (Figs.  15, 
16,  35).     It  is  also  represented  by  the  sagebrush  (Figs. 


CLIMATE  AND    LIFE 


69 


1,  46)  up  to  where  the  Middle  Temperate  begins,  but  tlie 
sagebrush  goes  to  the  upper  limit  of  the  Middle  Tem- 
perate also. 

Tlie  characteristic  plant  of  tlie  Middle  Temperate  is  the 
scrub  oak  (Fig.  34),  and  is  found  only  in  the  mountains 
except  in  the  uj)per  end  of  Cache  Valley. 


Fig.  34. 

Scrub  oak  brush,  characteristic  of  the  Middle  Temperate,  growing  ou  the 
mountains  of  northern  Utali. 

The  Upper  Tnnpfnifi'  is  reprcsciiti'd  Wy  the  spruces  and 
tirs  of  the  high  mountains  up  \n  the  timber  line,  and  in- 
cludes all  our  great  summer  resci'ts  (Figs.  7.  i^*). 

The  Frii/id  includes  the  treeless  mountain  peaks  and 
the  meadows  near  timher  line. 


Questions.  —  Trace  the  life  zoiies  on  (lie  map  and  their  relation 
to  the  moiiiitaiii  ranges  ami  valleys.  What  are  the  life  zones  ami 
their  limits  in  temperature  as  far  as  given  V  What  are  their  charac- 
teristic plants?  In  what  zone  do  you  live?  How  do  yon  know,  it? 
Do  you  know   the  oak  brush  (Fig.  34)?     Sagebrush  (Figs.  1.  3(j)? 


70 


rrAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


Cedar  or  juniper  (Fig.  ;}5)  ?     Spruce  (Fig.  9)?     Fir  (Fig.  7)?     Yel- 
low pine  (Fig.  42)?     Joshua  (Fig.  38)?     Creosote  bush? 

Flora. — It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  plants  origi- 
nated in  the  Tropical  Zone  and  scattered  thence  through- 
onl  the  world.  As  they  spread  they  were  adapted  to  the 
various  soils  and  climates  where  they  were.  During  the 
Utah  Coal  Age  the  flora  of  Utah  was  tropical.     During 


Fig.  35. 

The  Utah  juniper,  the  characteristic  bush  of  the  Lower  Temperate,  coinmou 

in  central  and  southern  Utah. 


the  following  or  the  Age  of  Mammals  the  flora  gradually 
changed  to  that  of  the  warm  Temperate  Zone,  and  the 
vegetation  was  nnich  like  that  of  the  Eastern  states  as  it  is 
now.  When  tlie  Ice  Age  or  Glacial  Period  came  on,  the 
cold  became  such  that  all  the  [)lants  of  the  Temperate  Zone 
were  killed  and  only  such  as  coidd  exist  in  the  Arctic 
regions  (or  high  mountain  tops)  grew  in  the  very  cold 
valleys,  as  all  the  lower  valleys  were  then.  The  flora  of 
the  Temperate  Zone  was  tlicn  diivcn  out  of  the  Great 
Basin  and  existed  onlv  in  the  wiirmer.rco-ious  of  southern 


CLIMATE  AJVD  LIFE 


71 


Arizona  and  northern  Mexico.  The  mountains  were  cov- 
ered with  perpetual  snow.  As  the  Ice  Age  came  to  a 
close,  giving  way  to  a  warmer  climate,  it  left  the  valleys 
and  mountains  bare  during  the  summer,  and  the  former 
became  so  hot  that  the  alpine  plants  could  not  exist  in 
them,  and  thus  they  had  to  climb  the  mountain  slopes, 
followiiig  up  the  retreating  snow  year  l)y  year,  or  perish. 


Rabbit  brush,  cdiiiinoii  everywhere  in  the  valleys  of  Utah. 


As  the  climate  in  the  valleys  grew  hotter  it  became 
adapted  to  the  plants  of  the  Temperate  Zone,  then  grow- 
ing in  Arizona,  and  these  gradual!}'  crept  back  over  the 
rim  of  the  Basin  on  the  south  and  occupied  the  valleys. 
The  great  Wasatch  ^lountains  formed  a  barrier  to  their 
coming  in  from  ihe  east,  and  tlie  cold  cliniatt*  of  the  north 
was  also  a  barrier.  The  Sierras  formed  anotiier  l)arrier 
on  the  west.  Thus  tlio  south  was  the  only  region  from 
wliicji  vegetation  could  conie.  The  climatt'  of  the  (ireat 
IJasin  continued  to  get  hotter,  and  the  plants  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zone  crept  up  the  mountain  sides,  following  close 


72  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

behind  the  alpine  phints,  until  at  last  the  latter  were 
crowded  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  peaks.  Thus  we  find 
every  very  high  mountain  possesses  the  same  alpine  flora, 
though  the  peaks  are  separated  hundreds  of  miles. 

We  find  that  Utah's  climate  charujed  from  tropical  to  tem- 
perate and  then  to  arctic  in  the  Ice  Age.  Since  then  it  has 
swuruj  ha<-k  till  th<'  S't.  Geort/e  region  has  become  tropical 
again.  This  has  resulted  in  tnigrations  of  the  floras  and  in 
a  great  change  in  the  plants  to  suit  the  climate  and  soil  in 
which  theg  grow.  We  find  the  same  alpine  flora  on  all  the 
high  mountain  tops,  regardless  of  their  separation  from  one 
another. 

As  the  plants  of  the  cooler  Temperate  Zone  left  the  val- 
leys, those  peculiar  to  the  Lower  Temperate  followed  over 
the  Great  Basin  and  possessed  the  land.  They  in  turn 
have  been  crowded  out  from  the  St.  George  region  by  the 
hot  climate  and  the  tropical  vegetation,  till  the  latter  has 
crept  up  the  Virgin  River  past  Silver  Reef  as  far  as 
S]»ringdale. 

In  this  struggle  for  existence,  which  has  continued  since 
the  Ice  Age,  we  find  many  devices  of  nature  which  have  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  plants  to  better  resist 
the  climate,  soil,  and  animal  enemies  to  which  they  have 
been  exposed.  In  southern  Utah  are  very  many  plants 
which  have  developed  spines  to  protect  them  from  being 
eaten  by  the  larger  animals  (Figs.  37,  38).  We  find  many 
plants  without  leaves,  the  bark  or  skin  of  the  stems  having 
been  changed  so  as  to  perform  the  office  of  leaves.  This 
is  found  among  the  Cacti  particularly.  Other  plants  have 
developed  thick  leaves  covered  with  resin  to  protect  them 
from  the  sun.  We  find  the  leaves  of  all,  except  some  an- 
nuals, have  been  reduced  in  size,  as  well  as  the  plants 


CLIMATE  AND   LIFE 


73 


themselves.  We  find  that  nearly  all  other  herbs  which 
live  longer  than  one  season  have  been  reduced  to  fleshy 
underground  roots  buried  deeply  beneath  tlie  surface  of 
the  ground  so  that  at  the  first  moisture  and  waiinth  in  tlie 
spring  they  may  ra})idly  send  up  stems  wliich  in  a  few 
weeks  blossom,  fruit,  die,  and  leave  no  trace  behind  them, 
while  the  roots  have  stored  up  enough  nourishment  to  keep 
them  alive  until  warm  rains  come  again  either  in  the  fall 


Yui.  -M. 
Bush  cactus,  cdiniiion  iu  tlie  St.  George  rejiiun. 

or  spring,  and  are  so  far  below  the  surface  tliat  they  do 
not  dry  out  in  the  hot  summers. 

Nature's  most  favorite  device  in  hot  and  dry  regions  is 
to  make  a  multitude  of  plants  whicli  start  from  the  seed  in 
the  spring.  These  go  through  the  entire  round  of  life  and 
produce  seeds  again.  The  latter  mature,  and  on  the  aj)- 
proach  of  the  dry  season  fall  upon  the  soil,  where  they  are 
covered  up  or  blown  into  cracks,  and  because  of  their  small- 
ness  and  denseness  are  able  to  resist  the  summer's  heat. 
They  are  ready  at  the  first  warm  rain  of  fall  or  spring  to 
start  the  round  of  life  anew.      We  find  this  state  of  things 


74  FTATT   STATE    SUPPLEMENT 

also  wherever  the  juniper  grows,  in  as  well  as  out  of  the 
Great  Basin. 

In  the  oak  zone,  or  Middle  Temperate,  and  all  the  climatic 
zones  above  it  to  the  alpine,  we  find  a  different  state  of 
affairs.  Here  the  summer  moisture  is  such  that  the  seeds 
of  annuals  are  not  secured  against  rotting  in  the  moist 
ground,  and  so  nearly  all  the  plants  live  for  more  than  a 
year,  and  therefore  have  developed  many  devices  for  pro- 
tecting their  roots  against  the  rigors  of  winter  and  spring. 
For,  in  this  region,  either  the  snows  are  deep  or  the  win- 
ter frosts  severe.  In  the  lower  region,  where  the  ground 
is  only  partially  covered  with  snow  in  the  winter  and  there 
is  much  freezing  and  thawing,  the  roots  are  generally  pro- 
tected by  dense  clusters  of  dead  leaves  or  by  masses  of  hair 
or  wool,  which  act  as  refrigerators  to  prevent  them  from 
starting  before  their  time.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
plants  growing  in  the  oak  zone.  In  the  higher  regions, 
where  snow  lies  deeply  on  the  ground  through  the  win- 
ter, plants  do  not  require  this  protection  for  their  roots, 
because  the  snow  acts  the  part  of  a  warm  mantle.  Here 
the  roots  are  protected  only  against  the  cold  and  changes 
of  spring. 

Tlie  study  of  the  way  plants  are  fitted  to  the  climates  in 
which  they  grow  is  most  interesting.  There  is  a  remark- 
able similarity  between  the  plant  devices  and  those  of 
animals  that  hibernate  or  hole  up  in  the  winter  in  the  same 
region. 

Because  of  the  dry  air  the  moulds,  rusts,  and  other  fungi 
are  few.  In  fact,  this  is  also  true  of  the  entire  vegetation. 
The  climate  is  so  varied  in  different  parts  of  Utah  that 
there  is  a  great  number  of  different  kinds  of  plants  (there 
being  about  3000  species),  tliough  the  quantity  of  indi- 


CLIMATE  AXD    LIFE 


75 


viduals  is  small.  The  hot  region  of  St.  (ieorge  has  a  flora 
peculiarly  its  ow  ii.  The  ])laiits  of  this  region  which  are 
most  abundant  are  the  Cucti,  which  are  found  in  the 
most  fantastic  sliapes  and  have  the  most  beautiful  flowers. 
Otlier  queer  })lants  in  this  region  are  tlie  Joshuas  (Fig.  38) 
and  other  yuccas.  These  are  large  plants  with  sword- 
sliaped  leaves  arranged  in  swabs  at  the  end  of  the  stems. 
The  mesquit,  creosote  l)ush.   anil    desert   wiUow  are  also 


Fig.  .•». 
The  Jd.shua,  the  most  peculiar  shrub  in  Utah. 


peculiar.  Since  tlie  summer  is  so  dry  and  hot,  the  ground 
in  spring  only  is  often  covered  witli  a  cai-])et  of  the  most 
bi'illiant  flowers,  but  in  a  month  they  an'  dried  n[)  and 
gone.  Notliing  but  the  seed  is  left  to  Ww  tlirougli  tlie  hot 
summer  and  start  life  anew  in  the  eomiiig  spring.  It 
sometimes  happens  here  that  in  the  fall  there  are  unusual 
rains;  then  the  flowers  start  up  ami  lilooni.  mature,  and 
blow  away,  just  as  though  it  were  spring. 

All  that  part  of   Utah  south  of  Ogden,  ineluding  all  the 


76  UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

valleys  and  all  the  slopes,  which  are  covered  with  the 
juniper  (see  V\g.  8;"))  and  pinon,  have  the  same  peculiarity 
as  the  St.  (leorge  liora;  namely,  the  ground  is  covered  with 
beautiful  llowers  in  the  spring,  which  soon  dry  up  and 
blow  away.  But  the  kinds  of  flowers  are  quite  different. 
This  whole  region  is  covered  with  sagebrush  (Fig.  36), 
shadscale,  and  rabbit-brushes.  The  most  beautiful  flower  is 
the  sego  lily.  It  is  the  state  flower.  Another  lovely 
plant  is  the  evening  primrose,  which  blossoms  only  at 
nicfht.  There  are  many  beautiful  cactus  flowers.  The 
Mexican  poppy  abounds. 

In  the  resfions  covered  more  or  less  with  alkali  there 
are  peculiar  plants  with  fleshy  leaves  and  inconspicuous 
flowers  which  belong  to  the  beet  family  (Fig.  31). 
These  ungainly  plants,  which  seem  to  have  no  value, 
are  really  the  only  ones  which  nature  uses  to  make 
the  deserts  suitable  to  support  life,  and  eventually  redeem 
them.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  these  plants  cannot 
thrive  without  much  alkali,  and  therefore  their  stems  and 
leaves  take  it  up  from  the  ground.  When  they  mature 
and  die,  the  winds  dry  them  u]j  and  carry  the  alkali  with 
tlie  leaves  far  asvay.  Another  peculiarity  is  that  some  of 
these  plants  have  very  large  roots  and  live  on  the  edge  of 
the  deserts  where  no  other  plants  will  thrive.  As  they 
grow  from  year  to  year  the  roots  increase  and  finally  raise 
mounds  of  earth,  sometimes  five  or  six  feet  high,  above  the 
ground.  The  snows  of  winter  and  the  summer  rains  fall- 
ing on  these  mounds  wash  out  the  alkali  from  them  and 
sweeten  the  soil  so  that  other  plants  may  live  upon  them. 
In  addition  these  mounds  are  scattered  so  thickly  over  the 
ground  that  the  winds  blowing  over  them  rapidly  drift  the 
spaces  full  of  sand  and  dirt.     This  covers  the  alkali  below 


CLIMATE  A XI)    LIFE  77 

and  raises  the  ground  so  that  whatever  salty  matter  there 
is  mixed  with  tlie  new  soil  will  also  drain  off  when  wet 
by  the  melting  snows  and  rains.  I'hus  year  by  year  the 
deserts  grow  narrower  and  smaller,  and  will  in  the  end 
entirely  disai)pear,  or  be  confined  to  very  sinall  alkaline 
lakes  and  flats. 

The  vegetation  of  Utah  differs  from  that  of  the  East  not 
only  in  the  small  quantiti/  of  plants  of  all  kinds,  but  in  the 
great  number  of  kinds.  This  is  due  to  the  different  climates 
caused  by  the  varying  elevations.,  and  not  by  latitude.  Utah 
has  an  unusually  large  number  of  brilliant  flowers.  The 
deserts  of  Utah  have  developed  a  very  jyeculiar  flora  adapted 
to  living  in  a  highly  alkaline  soil,  and  these  plants  are 
ivaging  so  successful  a  warfare  against  the  deserts  that  tltey 
will  ultimately  redeem  them. 

Timber. — The  timber  of  Utah  which  is  useful  for 
lumber  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  region  in  and 
above  the  oak  zone.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is 
in  the  cottonwoods,  wiiich  are  found  along  the  principal 
streams.  The  trees  of  the  higlier  mountains  are  the 
white  fir  (Fig.  17),  sjjruce  (Fig.  9),  red  pine  or  Douglas 
fir,  yellow  pine  (Fig.  43),  bastard  pine,  aspen,  mountain 
mahogany,  hard  mai)le,  and  narrow-leaved  cottonwood. 
The  white  fir,  spruce,  and  red  pine  are  beautiful  pyramidal 
trees,  and  abound  at  high  elevations.  The  last  two  are 
very  valuable  for  lumber.  The  firs  ])roduce  a  fine  balsam 
and  the  roots  of  the  spiuce  ai'e  used  foi'  liaskels  by  the 
Indians.  The  yellow  i)ine  i)roduees  the  finest  lumber, 
and  is  a  stately  tree.  It  is  found  only  sparingly  from 
Parley's  Park  to  Fish  Lake,  but  beyond  thai  tmius  very 
large  forests.  It  grows  in  tiie  oak  zone  only.  The 
bastard  pine  is  valuable  only  for  its  resin  and  grows  at 


78  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

high  elevations.  The  aspen  is  everywhere  in  middle 
elevations  in  the  mountains.  It  is  seldom  large  enough 
for  lumber,  but  makes  fine  kindling  wood  and  lagging. 
The  bark  is  a  valualjle  medicine.  The  mountain  mahogany 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  shrub  growing  in  the  oak  zone. 
The  wood  is  as  hard  and  compact  as  boxwood.  The 
liard  maple  seldom  reaches  the  proportions  of  a  tree  in 
tlie  wdld  state.  It  grows  along  the  streams  and  makes 
a  fine  shade  tree  when  cultivated.  The  narrow-leaved 
Cottonwood  gi'ows  along  the  mountain  streams,  is  some- 
times planted,  and  used  for  lumljer. 

Thi'oughout  the  lower  slopes,  low  hills  and  table-lands, 
and  below  tlie  oak  zone,  but  not  in  the  valleys,  Utah  is 
everywhere  covered  by  large  areas  of  juniper,  called 
cedar  (Fig.  35),  and  also  by  pihon.  The  piiion  is  a  small 
pine  tree,  seldom  reaching  thirty  feet  in  height,  which 
bears  a  large  seed  that  has  been  the  main  support  of  the 
Indians  for  ages.  The  juniper  is  also  a  scraggly  bush  or 
small  tree  of  about  the  same  size.  Both  of  these  are 
evergreens,  and  produce  large  quantities  of  resin  and  are 
everywhere  used  for  posts  and  fuel. 

Among  the  buslies  [)revalent  in  Utah  the  most  common 
is  tlie  scrub  oak  (Fig.  34),  Avhich  covers  the  Wasatch, 
Oquirrh,  Aqui,  Uinta,  and  Coal  Ranges  south  to  the  rim 
of  the  Great  Basin.  The  other  common  shrubs  are  the 
birch,  willow,  choke-cherry,  and  service-berry. 

The  valuable  timber  of  Utah  all  belongs  to  the  evergreen 
class  and  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  high  mountains. 
The  valleys  are  destitute  of  timber.  The  hills  are  covered 
with  low  trees  or  large  bushes  of  juniper  and  pinon  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Great  Basin.  In  the  eastern  part., 
ivhere  it.  is  more  moist  and  colder^  they  are  covered  with 
scrub  oak. 


CLIMATE  AND   LIFE  79 

Questions.  —  Where  dul  plants  originate?  What  was  the  flora  of 
Utah  at  tirst  V  To  what  did  it  change  ?  Where  did  the  temperate 
flora  go?  What  was  on  the  mountains?  IIow  did  the  flora  change 
as  the  climate  grew  warmer?  \Miy  are  the  flowers  on  the  different 
mountain  peaks  the  same?  From  what  region  did  the  temperate 
flora  come?  Why  did  it  not  come  in  from  the  east  and  the  west? 
Why  not  from  the  north?  Where  is  a  tropical  flora  found  now? 
What  devices  have  plants  used  in  the  St.  George  region  to  protect 
themselves  against  the  climate  and  animal  enemies?  What  is  peculiar 
to  the  spring  flora  there  ?  Do  plants  ever  bloom  twice  in  a  season 
there,  and  why  ?  What  is  true  of  the  juniper  region  ?  Does  the  oak 
zone  differ  from  the  juniper  zone,  and  how?  What  protection  do 
plants  useagainst  the  climate  in  this  zone?  Of  what  value  is  snow 
to  plants?  What  is  the  chief  peculiarity  of  the  Utah  flora?  What 
are  the  peculiar  plants  of  the  St.  George  region  ?  Why  are  there  so 
manv  annuals?  What  is  the  peculiar  vegetation  of  the  Great  Basin? 
What  is  the  most  beautiful  flower?  Describe  the  plants  that  grow  in 
highly  alkaline  soil.  For  what  are  they  useful  ?  IIow  are  the  deserts 
being  redeemed?  To  what  regions  is  the  timber  confined?  ■\\'hat 
are  the  trees  of  this  region,  and  for  what  are  they  used?  Which 
makes  the  finest  lumber?  Where  are  the  largest  forests?  What 
have  medical  value  ?  Wliat  are  the  best  trees  iov  jjlanting  for  shade  ? 
What  trees  are  most  used  for  posts  and  fuel  ?  What  are  the  most 
common  bushes  in  yonr  region?  Mention  the  common  ones  in 
Utah. 

Skarch  QrKSTiONS.  —  Do  any  plants  hibernate  or  hole  uj)  as  do 
the  animals?  What  provisions  do  they  make  for  winter?  What 
makes  them  start  in  the  spring?  Are  there  j^lants  which  live  on  one 
another,  and  what  do  you  call  them?  IIow  do  plants  protect  them- 
selves against  enemies?  IIow  against  climate?  What  devices  are 
used  to  jirotect  against  cold,  heat,  and  wind?  Classify  your  most 
common  plants  in  regard  to  life  zones.  Explain  what  is  meant  by 
the  different  floras  climbing  the  mountains  and  coming  in  over  the 
rim  of  the  (ireat  Basin.  Do  plants  walk?  IIow  do  plants  spread 
from  one  place  to  another?  Mention  every  means  that  is  used  and 
the  organs  which  the  plants  develop  to  bring  this  about.  lias  the 
struggle  for  existence  been  one  against  other  plants  or  against  climate? 
Why?  What  plants  in  your  region  are  valuable  to  men  for  fuel, 
medicine,  or  any  other  use?  IIow  can  you  tell  by  the  plants  in  your 
region  what  kind  of  crops  the  soil  will  produce  best? 


80  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

Animal  Life.  —  Because  of  the  scanty  rainfall  and  sparse 
vegetation  of  the  valleys  of  Utah  animal  life  is  not  abun- 
dant. In  southern  Utah  this  life  consists  chiefly  of  lizards, 
which  are  both  harmless  and  very  abundant ;  of  a  few 
snakes,  among  them  two  or  three  kinds  of  rattlesnakes ; 
and  of  insects,  especially  beetles.  The  birds  are  repre- 
sented by  the  California  quail,  which  is  very  abundant, 
the  shore  lark  or  desert  sparrow,  and  an  occasional  vulture 
and  hawk.  The  road  runner  and  the  mocking  birds  also 
occur,  but  are  very  scarce.  The  most  peculiar  animal  of 
this  region  is  the  kangaroo  mouse. 

The  animals  of  central  Utah  valle3^s  are  chiefly  the 
squirrel,  prairie  dog,  and  the  spermophile  or  ground-squir- 
rel, which,  along  with  the  lizards,  are  very  common.  The 
larger  animals  are  the  coyote,  antelope,  badger,  and  jack 
rabbit,  the  latter  being  very  common.  The  birds  consist 
chiefly  of  desert  sparrows  of  various  kinds,  the  English 
sparrow,  meadow  lark,  turtle  dove,  hawks,  pelicans, 
seagulls  (Fig.  31),  and  ducks,  which  are  very  common 
around  the  lakes.  Blackbirds,  tule  wrens,  and  the  like 
are  common  on  the  marshes.  Chubs,  suckers,  and  trout 
are  the  prevailing  fish.  Introduced  fish  are  the  detestable 
carp,  the  black  bass,  etc.  Insects  are  very  common,  espe- 
cially beetles  and  butterflies. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  desert  regions  is  the  absence  of 
water.  Tliis  causes  the  springs,  which  are  scattered  far 
apart,  to  be  frequented  by  what  seems  like  great  numbers 
of  birds,  insects,  and  other  animals.  If  there  are  trees 
around  these  springs  they  are  filled  witii  birds  all  day  long 
which  come  here  for  water  and  make  the  air  musical  with 
their  songs  while  they  rest. 

The  mountains  of  Utah,  which  are  well  watered  and 


CLIMATE  AND   LIFE  81 

hif(h,  support  the  greatest  number  of  auiinuls.  Insects  of 
all  kinds  are  very  abundant,  and  tliougli  tliere  are  not  as 
many  birds  l)y  fai'  as  are  found  in  the  East,  yet  tliey  are 
always  to  be  fountl.  Few  of  them  are  musical.  One  great 
peculiarity  of  the  western  mountains  is  their  pei-jjetual 
silence.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  scarcity  of  song  birds 
and  partly  to  the  thin  air,  which  carries  sound  such  a  short 
distance.  The  principal  birds  are  sparrows,  the  water  ousel, 
woodpeckers,  flickers,  blue  jays,  magpies,  king  birds,  quails, 
grouse,  hawks,  eagles,  and  ducks,  the  latter  frequenting 
the  alpine  lakes.  The  fish  are  mostly  trout.  Insects  are 
common,  especially  beetles.  The  more  common  of  the  other 
animals  are  ground-s(inirrt'ls,  chipniunks,  trcc-scjuirrels, 
hedgehogs,  cottontails,  woodehueks,  mountain  rats,  conies, 
or  ])ikas  as  they  are  properly  called.  The  larger  animals 
are  the  lynx,  \\ild  cat,  mountain  lion,  bear,  deer, "elk,  and 
mountain  slunq).  Formerly  mountain  goats  and  buffalo 
existed  in  Utah,  but  they  are  now  extinct. 

Utah  people  have  raised  silk  for  a  long  time.  'i'he 
annual  product  is  about  3000  j)ounds.  Most  of  the  silk 
is  raised  at  Kanarra  and  southward. 

The  animal  life  of  lUah  is  represented  by  thousands 
of  species  of  insects,  78  species  and  varieties  of  reptiles, 
827  species  of  birds,  and  80  species  of  mammals.  The 
reptiles  are  rejjrescntcd  in  species  by  0  frogs,  8  toads, 
24  lizards,  and  11'  snakes.  The  species  of  nianniials  em- 
brace 8  bats,  4  rats,  18  miee,  o  hares,  2  skuid<s,  4  gophers, 
10  squirrels  and  chipmunks,  ")  ground-s([uirrels,  one  each 
of  muskrat,  porcupine,  pika,  beaver,  i)rairie  dinj;.  marmot. 
otter,  badger,  wolverine,  weasel,  mink,  wild  eat,  lynx, 
mountain  lion,  antelope,  elk,  etc.  There  are  2  species  of 
foxes,  wolves,  and  deer,  and  3  species  of  bear, 
o 


82  rrAH  state  supplement 

The  animah  of  the  deserts  are  scmitij  and  small^  and  belong 
mostly  to  the  reptiles  and  insects.  Thoi<e  of  the  valleys  around 
the  Wasatch  are  more  abundant.  Those  of  the  mountains  are 
hardly  more  than  the  animah  in  the  valleys,  but  are  some- 
tvhat  more  varied  in  kinds.  The  animal  life  of  Utah  is  far 
less  abundant  than  that  of  the  East. 

Questions.  —  Why  is  not  the  animal  life  of  Utah  abundant V 
Describe  that  of  soutlieru  Utah,  centra]  Utah,  the  mountains.  What 
peculiarity  has  the  desert V  Why  do  our  mountains  seem  .so  silent? 
What  are  the  common  animals  in  your  region?  On  what  do  they 
feed?     Are  any  beneficial  or  injurious  to  the  peojtle?     If  so,  how? 

Search  Questions.  —  What  birds  and  mammals  migrate  ?  When  ? 
Why?  What  animals  hibernate,  and  why ?  What  animals  hole  up 
in  winter,  and  how  do  they  live  ?  How  do  animals  know  when  to  come 
out  in  the  .spring?  At  what  times  do  they  begin  to  hibernate  in  the 
fall,  and  what  provision  do  they  make  to  live  over  winter?  When  do 
they  come  out  in  the  s]>ring?  Why  do  we  have  fle.sh-  and  herb-eating 
animals?  What  hapjiens  when  they  are  not  proi)erly  balanced,  and 
how  is  the  balance  re.stored?  How  are  the  various  animals  protected 
against  climate  and  enemies,  and  how  provided  with  suitable  organs 
to  enable  them  to  thrive  under  the  conditions  in  which  they  exist? 
Classify  the  animals  according  to  the  life  zones  in  which  they  live; 
and  mention  the  leading  ones  in  each  zone.  What  are  the  animals  of 
your  region  ?     Classify  them  by  life  zone.s. 


CHAPTER   VI 

AGRICULTURE 

Irrigation.  —  I'tiili  differs  from  Colorado  and  the  East 
in  having  very  few  rains  in  the  growing  season,  there- 
fore a  larger  amount  of  water  is  required  for  irriga- 
tion than  would  be  necessary  even  in  Colorado.  This 
amounts  on  an  average  to  from  two  to  four  feet  per  square 
foot  irrigated.  To  get  this  water  on  the  land  at  the  least 
expense  the  people  selected  their  farms  close  under  the 
mountains  at  the  mouths  of  the  canyons,  where  the  streams 
entered  the  valleys,  and,  at  first,  made  little  ditches  with 
a  plough  and  scraper  to  carry  the  water  out  upon  their 
lands.  These  ditches  were  divided  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  people  who  used,  the  water.  Thus  settlements  clus- 
tered around  the  mouths  of  canyons,  and  as  they  grew,  the 
canals  had  to  be  widened  and  extended  and  made  more 
uniform  to  sup})ly  the  outer  ranches.  As  the  years  went 
by,  these  canals  became  more  expensive  and  were  built  by 
large  corporations  (Fig.  47").  The  most  inq)ortant  canal 
is  that  of  tlie  Bear  Kiver,  which  cost  over  a  million  dollars 
and  waters  many  thousands  of  acres.  The  farms  are 
selected  and  laid  out  according  to  the  slope  of  the  coun- 
try, so  as  to  get  a  proper  but  not  too  great  a  fall  for  the 
water.  The  feed  ditch  runs  ui)on  the  upper  side  of  the 
farm,  and  from  this  laterals  run  to  the  various  fields. 
The  fields  have  little  furrows  every  foot  or  so  away  run- 

83 


84 


UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 


ning  parallel  to  one  another  so  that  every  part  will  receive 
the  proper  moisture  as  the  streams  flow  down  the  furrows 
(Fig.  48).  The  ground  is  irrigated  once  a  week,  or  less 
often,  according  to  the  crop  and  soil  and  the  water  availa- 
ble. Small  grain  requires  but  few  waterings,  while  lucern 
and  root  crops  require  many.  One  advantage  which  irri- 
gation has  is  that  crops,  within  certain  limits,  can  be 
ripened  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  farmer  by  with- 
holding the  water,  or  can  be  kept  growing  longer  by  con- 
tinuing to  irrigate  them.     On  clay  land  the  method  of 


pfe.^ 

^^■'. 

M 

^,„^,^  ,...^ 

dH 

■ 

l^& 

WS^ 

^^L.^'i^^M 

^^v 

^s 

Fig.  ;J9. 
Fruit  scene  at  Junction,  above  the  Henry  Moiintiiius. 

flooding  is  often  used  because  the  soil  is  too  compact  to 
absorb  enough  while  the  water  is  flowing  over  it.  The 
ground  is  therefore  banked  up  in  little  squares  which  are 
filled  with  water  and  then  allowed  to  absorb  it.  Reser- 
voirs are  much  used  in  Utah  (Fig.  45).  Water-wheels 
are  also  employed  on  the  Green  River  to  raise  water  to  the 
ditches  (Fig.  4^5).  The  method  of  dividing  the  water 
generally  in  use  in  Ftali  is  by  weirs  or  flumes,  in  which 
partitions  are  i)laced  according  to  the  proportion  of  water 
owned  by  the  parties  using  the  ditch.      It  is  very  seldom 


CHltF  AGRICULTURAL 
PORTION 


TV'^*  <^^^(^r»i 


Fk;.  40. 


Locate  the  canals  on  tliis  map,  railroads,  wagon  roads,  desert,  lakes. 
Trace  tlie  county  lines.  Describe  the  valleys  and  trace  their  water- 
sheds. What  is  the  cajtital  V  Leading  cities?  Trace  the  mountain 
ranges. 


AGRICULTURE  85 

that  water  is  nieasurt'd  by  iiiim-i's  iiiclu's,  a  iiu'tliod  very 
common  in  California.  Subsoil  irrigation  is  not  yet  em- 
ployed in  rtali.  It  consists  in  carrying  the  water  from 
the  canyons  to  the  farms  and  thence  to  the  lichls  through 
pipes.  From  here  the  water  also  flows  underground  and 
rises  through  the  soil  from  holes  made  in  the  pipes.  If 
this  method  were  employed  the  amount  of  irrigated  land 
could  be  nearly  doubled,  because  it  would  save  the  great 
loss  by  evaporation  and  seepage  which  occurs  in  the  pres- 
ent canals  and  ditches. 

Practically  all  of  Utah  has  to  be  irrigated.  Irrination 
consists  in  carri/in(j  water  by  ditches  upon  the  land  to  sapply 
the  place  of  rain. 

Questions.  —  How  does  Utah  differ  from  Colorado  and  the  East? 
How  much  water  is  required  to  irrigate  a  sijuare  foot  of  ground? 
Why  are  the  towns  located  at  the  nioutlis  of  the  canyons?  How  are 
tlie  ditches  taken  out  from  tiie  streams,  and  liow  divided?  Wliy  have 
the  peojile  begun  to  build  large  canals?  ^\'hat  are  the  tliree  methods 
of  irrigation?  What  advantage  has  irrigation  over  raising  crops 
without  irrigation  ? 

Search  Qckstions.  —  What  is  the  nietli<i(l  dt  irrigation  in  your 
region?  How  many  times  in  the  season  do  you  irrigate  wheat,  lucern. 
potatoes,  and  orchards?  How  is  your  water  divided?  What  method 
of  irrigation  do  you  use?  How  can  it  be  improved?  Are  there  any 
reservoir  sites  in  your  region  that  could  be  made  useful?  Where 
would  it  be  best  to  place  them,  and  wliy  ?  .Are  you  sure  you  could  till 
them  with  wat(>r  if  you  had  them?  Why  cannot  all  of  Utah  be 
irrigated?  Would  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  ground  covered  by 
Great  Salt  Lake  nuike  any  dilference  in  the  rainfall  of  adjoining 
regions?     If  so,  why? 

Agriculture.  —  This  is  one  of  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
people  of  Utah.  The  centres  of  most  of  the  valleys  have 
clay  soil  highly  impregnated  with  alkali  and  are  poorly 
drained.      Therefore,  they  are  not  suitable  for  crofis.      The 


86 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


slopes  of  the  valleys  are  well  drained,  have  a  gravelly  soil, 
and  a  grade  nicely  fitted  for  irrigation.  The  most  impor- 
tant valleys  have  large  benches  or  table-lands  (Fig.  29) 
which  are  nearly  level,  and  were  once  the  shore  of  Great 
Salt  Lake.     These  make  admirable  farms.     The  quantity 


Fig.  41. 
(jrroiip  of  Shoslione  Indians. 

of  water  for  irrigation  in  ITtah  is  so  small  in  proportion 
to  the  irrigable  land  that  the  cultivated  area  amounts  to 
but  a  small  part  of  the  state.  Tliis  huid  is  valuable  only 
if  there  is  water  to  go  with  it.  There  are  occasional  years 
when  small  grain  can  be  raised  withont  irrigation:  this  is 
called  dry  farming,  Ijut  the  crops  are  uncertain.  The 
chief  products  of  Utah  are  hay,  grain,  root  crops,  and 
fruit.     There  is  little  native  hay  grown  because  the  soil  is 


AcnKri.rruE 


87 


too  alkaline.  Tiie  peoiilo  have  had  to  resort  to  a  ]»laiit 
belonging  to  the  pea  family  called  lucern  or  alfalfa,  uhich 
produces  from  two  to  five  cro})S  each  year.  The  colder 
valleys  like  Cache  (Fig.  •'")1)  and  Sanpete  raise  large 
amounts  of  small  grain.  Root  crops  are  grown  in  great 
abundance  throughout  L'tah.  Sugar  beets  and  potatoes 
are  the  chief  ones.  In  fruit  l'tah  dccupies  a  leading 
position  and  is  ra})idly  improving.      All  lands  of  temper- 


FiG.  42. 

Old  Fort  Cove,  built  in  early  times  as  a  refuge  frum  the  Indians.     Notice  the 
loop-holes  fnr  ritles  between  the  chimneys. 

ate  fruits  are  raised.  In  southern  Utah,  in  the  hot  region, 
figs,  almonds,  raisins,  grapes,  and  cotton  are  raised  in 
abundance. 

QcKSTioxs.  —  Wliat  is  the  character  of  tlie  ('cntrcs  of  tlii'  valleys? 
What  parts  are  l>est  adapted  to  crop.s?  What  make  admirable  farms? 
Is  the  cidtivated  area  in  Utali  larjjje  in  proportion  to  the  total  ?  Is 
the  land  in  Utah  all  valnahle  ?  What  is  dry  farming,  and  is  it  always 
siicces.sf ul ?  Wliat  jijant  is  most  vi.sed  for  hay.  and  why?  What  are 
the  chief  prodncts  in  l'tah?  Name  the  localities  in  which  each  is 
prodnced  to  the  best  ailvaiitase  ? 

Se.vuch  QcKSTioxs.  —  What  crops  are  raised  in  your  region? 
Can  any  increase  be  made  in  tlic  (|na]ity  ur  (luantity.  and  how  ? 


88       -  UTAH    STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

Grazing  and  Stock  Raising.  —  Since  but  little  of  Utah  is 
capable  of  irrigation  because  of  the  lack  of  water,  the 
land  is  uncultivated  by  farmers,  and  would  be  useless 
were  it  not  for  the  scanty  vegetation  which  grows  on  the 
deserts  and  the  abundant  grass  which  once  covered  the 
mountains.  The  people  early  began  raising  cattle,  horses 
(Fig.  44),  mules,    and    sheep,   till    now   the   animals  are 


"fft^ft. 

j'\ 

i. 

1 

■,    ^  ^j 

A 

i^HHI 

>?** 

^ffmm'^ 

■  '»■ 

^ 

M 

Fig.  4:?. 

Typical  ftraziiig  scene  at  the  head  of  tlie  Sevier.  The  coiinlry  is  covered  with 
yellow  pines.  The  low  mountain  mahogany  appears  in  the  right-hand 
corner.     Mail  wagon  in  foreground. 


counted  by  the  millions.  The  grass  growing  on  the 
deserts  has  the  pcundiarity  of  drying  up  and  still  retain- 
ing its  nourishment,  so  that  in  the  winter,  when  snow 
covers  the  mountains,  the  stock  s[)read  out  over  the 
de.serts  and  live  uj)on  this  grass.  Jn  addition  there  are 
certain  shrubs  which  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  sus- 
tenance for  stock.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  winter  fat 
(Fig.  11),  a  low  shrub  which  is  eaten  close  to  the  ground. 


AGRlCrLri'RE  .       89 

and  is  very  nourishing  because  of  the  abundant  seed  which 
it  produces,  and  whicli  remains  on  the  stems  during  the 
winter.  Tliere  are  two  other  shrubs  upon  which  the  sheep 
depend  beside  the  winter  fat.  One  of  them  is  the  shad- 
scaje,  a  thorny  shrub  beh)nging  to  the  beet  famil}',  and 
the  other  tlie  gray,  but  evergreen,  sagebrush  (Fig.  1). 
Wlien  the  snows  l)egin  to  melt  off  the  deserts,  so  that  the 
stock  can  no  h)nger  secure  water  to  drink,  the  animals 
drift  back  to  the  mountains  (Fig-  4o)  and  foHow  the 
retreating  snow,  till  in  the  height  of  sunnner  most  of  the 
animals  are  found  grazing  on  the  highest  mountains.  The 
number  of  cattle  raised  is  400,000;  sheep,  8,300,000;  total 
sheep  owned  in  Utah,  6,000,000  ;  wool  clip,  17,000,000  lbs. ; 
horses,  71,000,  mules,  Kl.OOO;  lu.gs,  53,000. 

QrESTiONS.  —  Why  is  I'tali  adapted  to  grazing?  What  is  the 
peculiarity  of  Utah  grasses?  What  shrubs  do  Utah  animals  browse 
upon?  And  why  are  shrubs  better  for  winter  food  than  grass  wlien 
snow  is  deep?  Why  are  animals  driven  from  one  part  of  the  state  to 
another  at  different  seasons? 

Search  Qckstioxs.  —  What  is  meant  by  overstocking  a  region? 
What  liarm  comes  of  it?  How  can  it  be  remedied?  What  part  of 
your  region  is  adapted  to  grazing,  and  what  kinds  of  stock  are  raised 
upon  it?  Explain  the  methoils  of  raising  sheep,  cattle,  horses,  and 
pigs  in  your  region. 


CHAPTER    VII 

SETTLEMENT 

Settlement. — Utah  was  inhabited  by  wandering  and 
uncivilized  tribes  of  Indians  until  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  Mexicans  discovered  it,  and  later  made  settlements 
at  Monroe,  P'illmore,  near  Oasis,  and  at  Tooele;  but  they 
had  long  been  abandoned  before  the  Mormon  pioneers 
came  to  Utah.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  northern 
Utah  was  much  frequented  by  trappers  and  traders  because 
of  the  abundance  of  forage  and  game.  A  trading  station 
was  maintained  at  Ogden. 

In  1843  General  Fremont  made  a  scientific  examination 
of  Utah.  His  report  was  published  in  1845,  and  read  by 
Brigham  Young,  who  had  for  some  years  contemplated 
moving  with  his  people  to  the  Kocky  Mountains.  This 
report  led  to  the  setting  forth  of  a  large  body  of  pioneers, 
which  body  had  been  previously  organized  by  Joseph 
Smith.  These  reached  Utah,  under  the  leadership  of 
Brigham  Young,  from  July  21st  to  24th,  1847.  Utah  is 
the  only  state;  in  the  Union  that  was  systematically  settled. 
To  Brigham  Young  belongs  the  credit  of  this  settlement. 
His  colonies  were  provided  with  everything  necessary 
for  their  growth  and  protection,  and  were  composed  of 
such  people  as  would  make  themselves  self-sustaining 
from  the  start.  Special  workmen  were  allotted  to  each 
colony,  and  Avere  given  the  necessary  tools  belonging  to 

00 


SETTLEMENT 


91 


their  profession.  Tliey  were  well  sustained  by  their 
people,  for  the  watchword  was  "  Support  home  industry." 
The  plan  of  settlement  consisted  in  clustering  the  people 
close  together  in  towns.  For  the  most  part  each  place 
was  divided  into  ten-acre,  or  (at  a  later  'date)  smaller 
blocks.  Each  l^lock  was  divided  into  four  or  eight  parts, 
and  each  family  usually  had  one  of  these.  In  addition  to 
this  lot,  the  families  took  up  farming  land  outside  of  the 
town.  This  has  resulted  in  Utah  being  covered  with  little 
settlements,  and  with  very  few  houses  outside  of  the  towns. 


Fig.  44. 
Frontier  horse  ranch  on  thewi>stt>rii  I'tah  desert.    Notice  at  the  left  the  corral 
made  of    poles  stnck  in  (he  yronnd  (with  tops  tied  together  by  willows 
woven  in). 

Since  colonies  depend  much  for  their  success  upon  easy 
communication  with  their  base  of  supplies,  good  roads  were 
built  from  Salt  Lake  City  to  all  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
and  later  the  Deseret  Telegraph  was  built  to  every  impor- 
tant settlement,  so  that  in  case  of  danger  the  defensive 
forces  of  Utah  might  be  brought  together  at  the  earliest 
moment.  Of  late  years  tliis  line  lias  given  way  to  a  very 
complete  teleplioiu'  system. 

The  early  settlers  experienced  many  hardships ;  the 
first    was    the    destruction    of    their    crops    by    crickets. 


92 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


la  the  midst  of  their  despair,  before  the  destruction  was 
complete,  myriads  of  seagulls  appeared  from  the  west, 
settled  upon  the  grain,  and  rapidly  devoured  the  insects. 
The  people,  in  gratitude  for  what  seemed  an  interposition 
of  Providence,  passed  a  law  forbidding  the  killing  of 
gulls.  This  law  is  still  in  force.  During  the  California 
gold  excitement  and  at  other  times  the  people  suffered 


Fig.  45. 

Parley's  Canyon  reservoir,  with  spillway  near  the  rocks  and  flume  in  the 
centre.  The  cliff  is  composed  of  quartzite  rock.  The  hills  are  covered 
with  oak  brusli. 


greatly  from  privation.  Many  of  them  had  to  eat  roots 
of  the  native  plants  to  support  life.  The  chief  of  these 
roots  is  the  sego ;  it  has  a  beautiful  blossom,  and  has 
become  the  state  flower. 

When  all  the  good  land  had  been  taken  up  around 
Salt  Lake  City,  settlements  sprang  up  along  the  base  of 
the  Wasatch  Mountains  both  north  and  south.  Bountiful 
had  already  been  occupied  in  1847.     In  1848  the  popu- 


SETTLEMENT 


03 


lation  streamed  northward  to  Centreville,  P'armington, 
and  Ogden.  Then  the  tide  set  southward  to  Mill 
Creek.  Next  year  Brigham  Young  began  his  ''  missions  " 
by  sending  out  parties  to  Sanpete  Valley,  Tooele,  and 
Provo.  Lynne,  above  Ogden,  and  some  other  hamlets 
were  started  near  the  existing  settlements.  In  1850 
most  of  the  immigrants  swarmed  into  Utah  Valley,  a 
beautiful  loralion,  and  founded   Alpine,   Amci-ican  Fork, 


j^Bt 

-'1 

1             ^1 

K' 

1    ' 

'      '"^■'■'^ 

Fig.  4t;. 
Irrigation  whoel  at  Green  River,  with  slanting  buckets  between  the  paddles, 
for  liftiMfi  water  to  the  ditehes.    The  wheel  is  about  thirty  feet  in  diameter 
and  is  turned  by  tlie  current  of  the  river. 

Pleasant  Grove,  Springville,  etc.  Other  settlements  sprang 
up  around  Ogden,  such  as  I'intah  and  Slaterville.  On  the 
west  Grantsville,  in  Tooele  Valley,  was  settled.  In  1851 
hamlets  began  to  spring  up  to  the  northward  of  Ogden, 
AVillard  being  the  most  prominent.  This  same  year 
"missions"  were  sent  out  to  Parowan,  Cedar  City,  etc. 
In  1852  the  towns  had  cxU'iidcd  as  far  south  as  the  rim 
of  the  Great  Basin  (near  Kanarra ).  while  the  larger  towns 
had   branched  out  into  little  settlements  around    them. 


94  UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

From  1853  to  1856  most  of  the  settlements  were  made 
along  the  Weber,  in  Cache  Valley,  and  in  the  St.  George 
region. 

The  best  land  now  having  been  taken  up,  it  became 
necessary  to  go  into  the  colder  and  mountainous  regions 
and  to  take  up  the  poorer  clay  lands  of  the  valleys. 
From  1857  to  1868  the  Weber  was  settled  as  far  as 
Kamas,  the  Provo  as  far  as  Heber,  and  along  the  Sevier 
settlements  arose  for  many  miles.  People  even  began  to 
occupy  the  isolated  mountain  parks. 

We  find  Utah  was  first  inhahitecl  hy  Indians,  then  hy 
Mexicans  and  Indians,  and  then  hy  systematic  colonizing 
from  the  eastern  states.  This  colonization  was  brought 
about  for  a  definite  purpose  and  wisely  managed.  Many 
hardships  were  experienced  in  the  early  years.  These  were 
due  to  the  rigors  of  the  climate,  hostile  Indians,  and  lack  of 
easy  communication  with  the  outside  world. 

Questions.  ^  Who  were  the  first  inliabitants  of  Utah?  What 
people  came  next,  and  where  did  they  settle?  Why  was  Utah  fre- 
quented by  trappers  and  hunters?  When  did  the  first  scientific  expe- 
dition come  to  Utah?  When  did  the  pioneers  arrive  in  Utah?  How 
was  Utah  settled?  How  were  the  colonies  provided?  How  were  the 
towns  laid  out?  How  were  the  farms  taken  up?  What  was  the  cause 
of  the  hardships  of  the  early  settlers?  Why  were  roads  built  early? 
Why  was  the  Deseret  Telegraph  built?  Wliat  followed  it?  Why  are 
the  seagulls  protected?  What  happened  during  the  California  gold 
excitement?  Describe  the  growth  of  the  settlements?  Why  were  set- 
tlements started  on  the  poorer  soils  and  in  the  cold  and  high  valleys? 

Search  Questions.  —  What  evidence  have  we  that  Mexicans  in- 
habited Utah?  Find  out  what  you  can  about  Fremont's  expedition. 
Also  about  the  trip  of  the  pioneers.  Also  the  Indian  wars.  How 
were  the  various  settlements  made? 

Routes  of  Transportation.  —  During  the  Indian  and  Mex- 
ican occupation,  tlie  cliief  highway  Avas  along  the  western 


SETTLEMENT 


95 


base  of  the  Wusatcli  from  tlie  Siuikf  River  to  the  ( '()h)rado, 
by  trail.  Xear  Juab  another  trail  followed  up  the  Sevier 
River,  aud  nossed  over  to  northeastern  Arizona.  Another 
trail  went  eastward  from  the  Weber  to  the  Wyoming 
country.  Immediately  preceding  its  settlement,  there 
were  three  wagon  routes  into  Utah, —  one  over  Emigra- 
tion Canyon  to  Salt   Lake   City,  one  tliroiii^h  the  Weber 


Fic.  47. 

Salt  Lake  and  .Ionian  ('anal,  with  lu-adicate  to  rt'<;iilatc  the  Mow  of  tlu'  water. 
Willows  (HI  till'  banks  of  the  canal;  cottonwuod  trees  farther  baek.  The 
great  bar  at  the  point  of  the  mountain  in  the  backi;round. 

Canyon,  and  one  into  Caelie  Valley.  Ininie(liately  after 
the  settlement,  good  wagon  roads  were  built  in  every 
direction. 

In  l8tlU  I 'tall  began  a  still  more  rapid  development, 
due  to  the  completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 
The  Utah  Central  Railroad  was  soon  built  to  Salt  Lake 
City,  and  afterwards  extended  to  Frisco.  The  American 
Fork  Railroad  went  up  that  canyon  to  move  the  ores  from 


96  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

the  Miller  mine.  The  Bingham  Canyon  l^ailroad  was  built 
to  Bingham,  and  the  A\'asatch  and  Jordan  Valley  to  Alta 
to  haul  the  ores  of  those  camps.  The  Utah  Northern 
Railway  ran  to  Idaho  to  furnish  trans})ortation  for  the 
great  valleys  of  northern  L'tah.  The  Utah  and  Nevada 
Railroad  was  constructed  westward  to  Terminus  to  tap 
the  western  valleys  and  mines.  By  this  time  the  great 
natural  highways  of  distribution  had  been  occupied  by 
railroads,  and  had  reached  all  of  Utah  except  the  San- 
pete and  Sevier  valleys.  All  followed  old  wagon  roads, 
which  were  built  for  similar  purposes,  and  all  centred  in  Salt 
J^ake  City.  In  1883  the  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  was 
finished  across  the  deserts  of  eastern  Utah  and  over  the 
coal  fields  to  Salt  Lake  City.  Later  this  road  has  occu- 
pied the  San])ete  and  Sevier  valleys,  and  has  built  branches 
up  the  Provo  and  over  the  mountains  from  Salt  Lake  City 
to  Park  City.  This  line  and  the  Union  Pacific  have  also 
built  to  Eureka,  and  are  contemplating  opening  the  southern 
and  western  part  of  Utah  by  through  railroads. 

We  find  Indian  trails  early  established  along  the  natural 
routes  of  transportation.  These  were  afterward  utilized  by 
wayon  roads  and  finally  occupied  by  railroads. 

Questions.  —  Describe  the  chief  highways  during  the  Indian  and 
Mexican  occupation.  What  were  the  early  wagon  routes  in  Utah? 
What  routes  of  transportation  were  built  after  1800?  DescriVje  them. 
What  towns  would  you  pass  through  in  going  from  Ogden  to  Grand 
Junction?  What  from  Ogden  to  Frisco  and  Modena?  How  would 
you  reach  Provo?  Alta?  Manti?  Marysvale?  Mercur?  the  Mam- 
moth mine?     Park  City?     Ileber?     Siiiinyside? 

Skarch  Qukstioxs.  —  How  did  the  Indians  first  make  their  trails 
and  discoA'er  the  best  routes?  How  did  the  pioneers  find  out  the  best 
wagon  routes?  Describe  the  various  kinds  of  bridges  in  your  region 
from  the  smallest  to  the  largest,  and  how  they  are  made. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

GOVERNMENT 

Political  History.  —  At  its  settlement  Utah  was  part  of 
Mexico,  but  in  the  year  1850,  havinj^  previously  been 
ceded  to  the  L'nited  States  (1848),  was  erected  into  a 
territory  with  Brighani  Vouui^  as  governor.  It  contained 
225,000  square  miles.  In  l.Stli*  it  was  reduced  to  its 
present  size,  which  is  84,970  square  miles.  January  4, 
189G,  it  was  admitted  as  a  state. 

System  of  Government.  —  When  Utah  was  a  territory  it 
had  a  form  of  government  which  was  established  by  Con- 
gress. Its  legislature  could  pass  laws,  but  the  Governor, 
who  was  a])pointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
had  the  power  of  absolute  veto  on  all  such  legislation.  In 
addition.  Congress  could  annul  any  laws  passed  by  the 
Legislature  and  the  (iovernor. 

Before  Utah's  admission  to  the  Union,  Congress  passed 
an  Enabling  Act  whose  terms  were  to  be  fulfilled  by  the 
proposed  constitution  of  the  new  state  before  it  could 
become  a  state.  A  constitution  was  duly  adopted,  ap- 
proved by  Congress,  and  Utah  declared  a  state. 

The  Constitution  guarantees  to  every  citizen  certain 
inalienable  rights.  All  persons  wiio  are  neither  idiots, 
insane,  nor  convicted  criminals,  and  are  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  are  voters  provided  they  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  have  resided  in  the  state  for  a  year,  in  the 
county  t'nr  four  luonlhs,  and  in  the  preeinet  for  sixty  days 
u  97 


98  UTAH    STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

previous  to  the  time  of  registration.  All  liuve  equal  rights 
without  regard  to  sex  or  color.  All  ballots  must  be 
secret.  General  elections  shall  occur  every  two  years  on 
the  first  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
and  all  officers  shall  take  office  on  the  second  Monday  in 
January  after  their  election. 

State  Government.  —  In  order  to  conduct  the  affairs  of 
a  state  properly,  such  as  to  raise  money  for  tliC  expenses 
of  management,  to  educate  the  children,  to  make  laws, 
to  punish  criminals,  and  to  have  all  things  in  systematic 
order  for  ease  in  operation,  it  has  been  found  best  to  sepa- 
rate the  government  into  three  independent  departments : 
the  law-making  or  legislative,  the  operating  or  executive, 
and  the  judicial  or  system  of  courts  for  interpreting  the 
laws.  Though  this  system  seems  to  l)e  found  only  in 
tlie  management  of  the  state  as  a  whole,  it  really  pervades 
the  county  and  city  management  as  well.  and.  is  also  found 
in  all  business  estal)lisliments  of  imj)ortance. 

Legislative.  —  I'tahV  i)arti('ipatioii  in  the  management 
of  the  United  States  consists  of  two  senators  who  are 
elected  by  the  Legislature  for  six  years  (salary  i|5000),  and 
one  representative  elected  by  the  people  (salary  1)5000)  for 
two  years,  all  of  whom  go  to  Congress  and  take  part  in 
the  making  of  all  legislation  passed  by  Congress. 

The  state  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives.  Tiie  Senate  is  composed  of  eighteen 
members.  This  number  must  never  exceed  thirty.  The 
senators  are  elected  by  the  people  from  senatorial  dis- 
tricts, for  four  years,  and  half  are  elected  every  two  years. 
A  senator  must  be  twenty-five  years  of  age,  a  resident  of 
the  state  for  three  years,  and  a  resident  of  the  district  for 
one   year.     The    House    consists   of   forty-five   members. 


r;0VEf!^'^f^:^"r  99 

The  number  of  members  must  never  exceed  three  times, 
nor  fall  below  twice,  the  number  of  senators.  These  legis- 
lators are  apportioned  to  the  various  districts  according  to 
the  population.  The  powers  of  the  Legislature  consist  in 
making  laws,  a[>proving  or  rejecting  a[)pointees  of  the 
Governor,  and  impeaching  and  trying  the  general  state 
orticers  for  miseondm-t  in  tlirir  ofliccs.  The  sessions  shall 
never  exceed  sixty  days  in  length.  The  Governor  may 
veto  any  bill  passed,  but  the  Legislature  may  i)ass  it  over 
his  veto  if  two-thirds  of  each  house  so  vote.  All  ])ills 
which  are  not  disapproved  by  the  (iovcnior  within  live 
days  after  being  passed  become  laws  unless  it  is  at  the  end 
of  a  session,  when  ten  days  are  allowcch  In  case  of  the 
trial  of  any  state  officer  for  misconduct  in  ofhce  the  House 
must  prosecute  and  the  Senate  must  sit  in  jndgment.  If 
two-thirds  of  the  Senate  vote  for  conviction,  the  officer  on 
trial  is  (U'jjoscd  from  office.  When  the  (iovernor  is  on 
tiial.  the  Chief  .lustice  of  the  Supreme  Court  presides. 

Executive.  —  This  de[)artment  consists  of  the  various 
state  officers  and  boards. 

Gorernor.  —  Tho  (lovmidr  is  the  chief  officer  in  the  state,  and  super- 
vises the  work  of  all  the  other  officers.  lie  rejjreseiits  tlie  state  in  all 
its  relations  willi  otlier  states,  signs  bills  of  the  Legislature  before  they 
become  laws,  issues  election  and  other  jiroclaniations.  offers  rewards  for 
the  arrest  of  criminals,  and  appoints  olhcers  to  fill  vacancies.  (Salary 
$4000.) 

Secritar>/.  —  The  Secretary  of  the  state  controls  all  papers  of  the 
Legislature,  keeps  the  seals,  issues  incorporation  papers,  certifies  elec- 
tions, and  has  the  care  of  the  Capitol  buildings.     (Salary  ^3000.) 

Autlitnr.  —  The  Auditor  keeps  all  the  state  financial  accounts. 
(Salary  §U>000.) 

Treasurer.  —  Tlie  Treasurer  pays  out  all  moneys.     (Salary  81500.) 

School  Saperinlendent.  —  Thiii  officer  has  general  charge  of  the 
schools  of  the  state.     (Salary  61t>00.) 


100  UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

All  the  above  are  elected  to  office  by  the  people. 

Coal  Mine  Inspector. — -The  Inspector  has  charge  of  the  inspection 
of  coal  mines.  (Salary  $"20()().)  This  officer  and  all  that  follow  are 
appointed  by  the  Governor. 

Statistician.  —  The  Statistician  has  charge  of  the  collection  of  sta- 
tistics of  all  kinds  pertaining  to  the  state.     (Salary  $1500.) 

Adjutant-General.  —  (Salary  $.jOO.)  The  state  militia  is  com- 
manded V)y  this  officer. 

Engineer.  —  The  State  Engineer  has  the  care  of  all  water  of  the 
state,  makes  surveys,  estimates  on  all  kinds  of  irrigation  projects,  and 
collects  all  irrigation  data.     (Salary  |2000.) 

Fish  and  Game  Commissioner.  —  This  officer  has  the  oversight  of  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  protection  and  propagation  of  fish  and  game. 
(Salary  $1000.) 

Dairy  and  Food  Inspector.  —  This  official  serves  two  years.  (Salary 
$600.) 

Bank  Examiner.  —  This  officer  holds  his  position  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  Governor,  and  examines  and  reports  on  the  condition  of  the  banks 
of  the  state.     (Salary  $1200.) 

Collector  of  Taxes  on  Cars.  —  This  officer  attends  to  the  taxes  on 
cars  of  railroads  within  the  state.     (Salary  '1300.) 

The  following  are  the  state  boards.  All  members  are  appointed 
to  office  by  the  Governor  and  serve  four  years,  except  as  otherwise 
noted. 

State  Board  of  Equalization.     Four  members  (salary  $400). 

Examiners,     (iovernor,  Secretary,  Attorney-General. 

Health.  Seven  members.  Term  seven  years.  Local  boards  may 
be  appointed  by  the  cities,  town  trustees,  etc.  These  boards  shall 
consist  of  three  members. 

Horticulture.  Three  members.  One  each  in  the  three  districts. 
The  first  district  shall  consist  of  all  counties  northeast  and  west  of 
Salt  Lake  County;  the  second  of  Utah,  Carbon,  Juab,  and  all  coun- 
ties south  to  and  including  Grand  and  west  to  ISIillard;  the  third  of 
the  remaining  southern  counties. 

Labor.     Three  members.     (Salary  $4.00  per  day.) 

State  Library.     Governor  and  members  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Silk.     Five   members   to   serve  five  years.     (Salary  of   Secretary, 

>■) 


GOVERNMEXT  101 

Loan.     Governor,  Secretary,  Attorney-General. 
Pharmacy.     Five  members  to  serve  five  years. 
Dental.     Five  members. 

Land.     (Jovernor,  Secretary,  and  five  members  to  serve  two  years. 
1).  A.  &  M.  Society.     Twelve  directors. 
Corrections.     Four  members  and  the  tiovernor. 
Insane  Asylum,     (lovernor,  Treasurer,  Auditor. 
Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind.     Five  members. 
State  University.     Nine  Regents. 
Agricultural  College.     Seven  Trustees. 

Education.     State  Superintendent  of   Schools,  Presidents  of   the 
University  and  Agricultural  College,  aud  two  members. 
Reform  School.     Three  Trustees. 
Art.     Seven  members. 

Judicial. — The  judicial  department  of  government  is 
represented  by  the  United  States  District  Court  with  one 
judge  who  serves  for  life,  by  the  United  States  Marshal 
and  United  States  District  Attorney,  and  minor  officers. 
This  court  has  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  between  the 
state  of  Utah  aud  other  states,  and  over  all  legal  matters 
between  citizens  of  Utah  and  those  of  other  states.  It 
has  power  over  all  violations  of  United  States  laws. 

For  trials  of  state  officers,  see  Legislature. 

State  Supreme  Court.  —  This  consists  of  three  members 
who  serve  six  years.  Each  judge  must  be  at  least  thirty 
years  old  and  a  resident  of  I'tah  for  five  years.  They  are 
elected  by  the  people.  i\Iint)r  officers  of  this  court  are 
Clerk,  Reporter,  and  Bailiffs.  (Salary  of  judges,  •'i'SOOO.) 
This  court  has  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  at  common  law 
and  state  laws.  Appeals  can  \k'  iiuuh'  to  thi'  Supi'cme 
Court  from  all  district  courts.  There  is  no  appeal  from 
the  decisions  of  this  court  where  the  state  laws  are  con- 
cerned, but  appeals  can  be  made    to    the   United    States 


102  UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

Supreme  Court  iu  other  mutters  iuvolving  a  ITnited  States 
treaty,  statute,  or  praetice.  The  Supreme  Court  has  no 
jurisdiction  over  cases  tried  in  the  United  States  District 
Court. 

State  District  Courts. — There  are  seven  district  courts 
in  Utah.  One  judge  elected  by  the  people  every  four 
years  presides  over  each  district  except  in  the  Salt  Lake 
District,  where  there  are  three  judges.  He  appoints  his 
own  stenographer.  He  must  hold  court  at  least  three 
times  each  year  at  each  county  seat  in  his  district.  He 
must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  old,  and  be  a  resident 
of  the  state  for  three  years.  This  court  has  jurisdiction 
over  all  cases  at  common  law  and  state  law,  but  there 
is  an  appeal  allowed  from  its  decisions  to  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  Attorney-General  is  elected  for  four  years. 
(Salary  -f  2000.) 

The  right  of  trial  by  jury  is  not  denied  except  in  petty 
cases.  A  jury  shall  consist  of  twelve  persons  in  all  capi- 
tal offences,  and  a  unanimous  verdict  must  be  returned. 
In  all  othei-  cases  the  jury  shall  not  exceed  eight  persons. 
In  criminal  cases  this  jury  nuist  reach  a  unanimous  ver- 
dict;  in  others  tln-ee-fourths  must  agree.  In  civil  cases 
and  misdemeanors  it  may  be  less  than  eight  l)y  agreement 
of  both  parties  to  the  case.  In  justices'  courts  it  must 
not  exceed  four  persons,  and  may  be  less  ])y  agreement. 
A  Grand  Jury  shall  consist  of  seven  i)ersons.  Its  duties 
are  to  inquire  into  violations  of  law  and  bring  indictments 
against  offenders  in  grave  cases  if  five  members  of  the 
jury  agree  as  to  the  offence.  But  prosecutions  may  be  in- 
stituted by  the  courts  without  indictment  by  a  grand  jury. 

County  Government.  —  'I'he  legislative  department  of 
county  government  is  represented  by  tlie  Board  of  CJounty 


GOVERNMENT  103 

Commissioners,  wliicli  consists  of  tliree  nieml)ers  elected 
by  the  peo])k'.  Tlicy  jjuss  such  rcgiihitions  as  the  proper 
conduct  of  strictly  county  matters  demands,  and  fix  the 
salaries  of  (jfficeis,  determine  the  taxes  U)  he  levied,  etc. 
The  executive  department  of  county  government  is  repre- 
sented l)y  the  treasurer,  recorder,  auditor,  attorney,  sur- 
veyor, assessor,  school  superintendent,  school  trustees, 
coroner,  etc.  These  are  all  elected  by  tlie  people.  The 
judicial  department  of  county  government  is  represented 
by  the  District  Court  and  by  justices  of  the  peace,  sheriff, 
and  constables.  The  county  commissioners  are  required 
to  divide  the  counties  into  justices'  precincts. 

City  Government.  —  The  legislative  side  of  city  govern- 
ment is  represented  by  tlie  City  Council.  This  bears  the 
same  relation  to  tlie  Mayor  that  tlie  Legislature  does  to 
the  Governor.  It  can  pass  any  regulations  desired  for 
the  maiuigement  of  city  affairs,  but  subject  to  the  veto 
of  the  Mayor.  The  veto  can  be  overruled  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote.  It  also  has  the  confirmation  of  all  city  offi- 
cers appointed  by  the  Mayor.  In  cities  of  the  first  class 
the  Council  consists  of  fifteen  members,  in  second-class 
cities  of  ten  members,  and  in  third-class  of  five  members. 
All  city  (iflicers  serve  two  years. 

The  executive  department  of  city  government  consists  of  the 
Mayor,  Recorder,  Treasurer,  who  are  elected  by  the  jieople,  and  in 
cities  of  the  first  and  second  class  by  an  Attorney,  School  Board,  and 
Auditor;  these  are  also  elected.  Among  the  many  officers  appointed 
for  city  positions  are  the  police,  water,  fire,  health,  streets,  and  public 
works  boards;  other  officers  are  the  surveyor  and  engineer,  superin- 
tendent of  parks,  building  inspector,  dog  tax  collector,  etc.  The  judi- 
cial department  of  city  government  is  represented  l)y  tin-  higher 
courts,  by  the  city  court  or  city  justice.  There  are  two  judges  of  tlic 
city  courts  who  are  elected  by  the  peojile,  must  be  at  least  twenty-five 


104  UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 

years  old,  and  receive  a  salary  of  $2500  each.  These  judges  have  juris- 
diction over  all  matters  concerning  city  ordinances,  and  all  cases 
involving  not  over  $500.  They  decide  all  cases  without  juries  where 
the  fine  is  not  over  $50  nor  the  imprisonment  exceeds  thirty  days. 
This  court  is  found  only  in  cities  of  the  first  class.  In  other  cities 
the  city  justice  has  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  pertaining  to  city 
ordinances,  and  all  other  cases  not  involving  a  fine  of  over  $300  nor 
imprisonment  for  longer  than  six  months. 


CHAPTEPv    IX 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS  EXCLUSIVE  OF  MINING  CAMPS 

Region  west  of  Wasatch.  —  In  the  ifgioii  west  of  the 
Wasatch  vallcvs  Iheru  are  few  settlements.  Tlie  chief  of 
these   are    Iltapah    in    (he    Dee})    Creek    Mountains,    Fish 


Fig.  4S. 

Method  of  irrij;atiiii;  ;i  vineyard  at  St.  George:  water  jii.st  l)c<;iiiiiiiij;  to  flow 
down  the  rows.     St.  (leorjie  Tcinple  in  tlii'  l)ack,t;roiin(l. 

Springs  in  tlie  Fisli  Spring  range,  and  tlie  Hawaiian 
cokmy  in  Skull  Valley.  These  settlements  raise  hay  and 
grain.  Tooele  Valley,  which  lies  directly  west  of  Salt 
Lake  VaHev.  has  the  two  tliri\ing  settlenu'uts  of  Tooele 
and  Grantsville,  which  raise  imich  jjroduce  and  fruit,  and 
supply  the  adjoining  mining  camps.      Rush  VaUey,  which 

105 


106 


UTAH    STATE   SUPPLEMENT 


lies  directly  south,  and  is  a  prolongation  of  Tooele  Valley, 
has  two  settlements,  St.  John  and  Vernon,  which  raise 
similar  [)roducts. 

Cache  Valley.  —  This  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  Utah, 
and  along  with  Sanpete  divides  the  honor  of  being  the 
granary  of  Utah.  There  are  many  towns  in  this  valley. 
All  of  them  are  of  good  size.  The  soil  is  fine  and  has  but 
little  alkali.     The   products  are  fruit,  especially  berries. 


Fig.  41). 
Lehi  beet-sugar  factory. 

cherries,  and  the  like,  root  crops,  hay,  and  grain.  Logan 
is  the  chief  city.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Logan  River  in  the  shadow  of  the  Wasatch,  and 
has  fine  drainage,  soil,  and  scenery.  In  1900  the  popula- 
tion was  5451.  It  has  many  business  houses,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  the  Logan 
Temple,  Brigham  Young  College,  and  several  schools  and 
churches.  There  are  two  knitting  factories,  one  nurser}^ 
and  one  sugar  factory.  The  Hercules  Power  Company 
is  located  here,  and  develops  4000  horse  power.  Other 
towns  are  Providence,  Millville,  Paradise,  Hyrum,  Wells- 


(777 /•>   AM)    '/'OU'.V.S 


107 


ville,  Mciidon,  'l^rciitoii,  Clurkstuu,  Itii-liiiKtiul,  Siiiithlicl<l, 
and  Hyde  I*<irk.  The  Oregon  Short  Line  Railroad  trav- 
erses this  valley. 

Malad  Valley.  —  This  lies  just  over  a  low  range  west  of 
Cache  N'alley  ahuiL;-  the  Malad  River,  and  has  several 
towns.      lis  priulurls  are  the  same  as  Cache  Valley. 


/ 

ter~^ 

1     ^^ 

ffl^;^ 

m 

^SSr^wMCa^'\'.-rr.^y^^^^^ 

^PiU 

Fii;.  .")ii. 
Provo  woolen    mills,  with   cluinl-rapped  Wasatch    in    the   backgioiiml.     Irri- 
gating iliti'h  in  the  loreuniund. 


Bear  River  Valley. — This  raises  imich  hay  and  !:;iain 
and  some  fruit.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  but  the  climate 
is  cold.     The  leading  towns  are  Randolph  and  Laketown. 

Lakeshore. — The  land  in  this  region  is  as  lertile  as 
any  in  Ttah.  and  hecause  i»t'  its  low  elevation  is  excellent 
for  fruit.  'IMie  jiriiicipal  i)ro(hu-ts  are  fruit,  root  crops, 
hay,  and  grain.  The  region  has  such  good  railway  tacili- 
ties  that  the  cr(»ps  raisi-d  are  shii)ped  in  all  directions. 
The  principal  towns  on  the  north  are  Corinne,  lirigham 
City,  and  Willard.  The  principal  towns  on  the  south  are 
Farmington,  Kaysville,  Centreville,   Laytou,  and   i'.ounti- 


108 


VTAfI  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


fill.  Ogdeii  is  the  largest  city,  and  lies  in  the  centre  of 
the  region.  It  is  the  second  city  in  size  and  importance 
in  the  state,  and  is  a  great  railway  centre.  It  is  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  Weber  and  Ogden  rivers  at  the  foot 
of  the  towering  Wasatch.  Unlike  most  of  the  cities  of 
Utah,  Ogden  has  an  abundant  water  supply  both  for  irri- 
gation and  power^  and  is  quite  a  manufacturing  centre. 
Its  people  are  very  aggressive  and  loyal  to  their  city. 
The  population  in  1900  was  16,313.     It  is  well  supplied 


Fic,  r.i. 


Logan  and  Cache  Valley,  with  the  Temple  on  tlie  left. 

with  churches,  private  and  public  schools,  banks,  hotels, 
business  houses,  and  parks.  There  are  a  number  of  fine 
summer  and  health  resorts,  such  as  Glenwood  Park,  the 
Hermitage,  Malan's  Heights,  Winslow  Inn,  and  the  famous 
Hot  Springs.  In  Ogden  Canyon  is  one  of  the  greatest 
power  dams  in  I'^tah.  It  furnislies  electric  power  for  all 
towns  from  Ogden  to  Salt  Lake  City,  and  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive in  the  state.  Ogden  is  tlie  seat  of  the  Deaf  and 
Duml)  Institute,  Reform  School,  and  (-arnegie  Library. 
It  is  supplied  with  waterworks,  light  and  gas  plants,  and 
paved  streets.     The    principal    manufacturing   establish- 


CITIKS    AM)    TOUWS 


109 


ments  are  the  beet-sugiir  factory,  woolen  mill,  laundries, 
flour  mills,  brewery,  canning  factories,  creameries,  broom 
factory,  brick  yards,  candy,  box,  vinegar,  and  cracker  fac- 
tories. The  towns  south  of  Ogden  do  muili  market  gar- 
dening for  Salt  Lake  City.  All  this  region  is  tra\'ersed 
by  railroads. 

Salt  Lake  Valley.  — This  is  the  most  populous  valley  in 
the  state.     It   is   noted    lor  its  manufactures,  commerce, 


i^^£9H3HSS£^ESiSBNSj^^£ 

1 

"  ,.•«£! 

71^M 

mi 

Ogden.     TliP  Wasatdi  in  tlic  liackiinimicl.  tlie  Wclur  liivcr  riowinii  iimler  the 
bridge.     Tlic  dark  liiishcs  in  the  foregroniKl  are  I  lie  sijuaw  liiish. 

fruit,  and  vegetables.  Salt  Lake  City  (  Figs,  oo-ol))  is  the 
capital  and  chief  city  in  the  state.  It  has  always  been 
the  great  financial,  religious,  and  educational  centre,  not 
so  much  because  of  its  natural  facilities,  in  whii-li,  on  the 
wdiole,  it  is  second  to  none,  but  because  it  was  tirst  made 
the  great  political  centre  and  has  been  fostered  ever  since. 
In  earlv  times  tlu-  only  feasible  rotitc  from  the  great 
plateau  country  of  Wyoming,  over  which  wci-c  all  the 
overland  trails,  was  through  Salt  Lake  Valley.     In  addi- 


110 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


tion,  the  early  discovery  of  mineral  in  Bingham  and  Little 
Cottonwood  made  Salt  Lake  Valley  the  natural  smelting 
point  for  those  camps.  During  these  early  years  the 
smelting  industries  of  the  valley  had  secured  such  a  lead 
that  not  even  the  development  of  such  great  camps  as 
Tintic  and  Frisco,  and  the  discovery  of  coal  in  the  Coal 
Range   southeast   of   Provo,   could   lake    from    Salt    Lake 


Vie. 


Salt  Lake  City  and  the  Wasatch. 

Valley  its  lead  in  sim-Uin^^  Pei-haps  the  chief  factor  in 
the  development  of  Salt  Lake  City  was  the  fact  that  it 
was  the  centre  of  the  Mormon  Church  and  of  all  the  colo- 
nizing projects  l)y  whieli  settlements  were  established  and 
roads  built  in  all  directions  from  it. 

1'he  natural  advantages  of  Salt  Lake  City  are  its  beau- 
tiful situation  on  the  southern  slope  of  a  spur  from  the 
Wasatch,  with  its  conse'iuent  warm  climate  and  protection 
from  the  wind  ;  its  proximity  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  with 
its  delightful  bathing  facilities ;  and  its  nearness  to  the 


CITIES   AM)    TOWNS  111 

loftiest  portion  of  the  W'usalch  .Miuiiilaiii.s,  with  their 
magnificent  scenery  and  deliglitriil  summer  resorts,  'llie 
death  rate  is  only  13  per  1000.  For  many  years  Salt  Lake 
City  was  the  centre  of  overland  travel,  but  tlie  building 
of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  through  Weber  Canyon  took 
from  it  this  advantage.  This  was  jiartially  restored  by 
the  Rio  Grande  Western  liailroad,  and  fully  compensated 
for  by  the  completion  of  the  Park  City  and  the  Utah  and 
Nevada  railroads.  The  extension  of  the  Los  Angeles 
Railroad  to  the  Pacific  will  again  make  Salt  Lake  City 
the  centre  of  overland  travel.  Tlie  Zion"s  Coi'iperative 
Mercantile  Institution,  which  is  the  greatest  business 
establishment  in  Utah,  was  early  organized  for  making 
Salt  Lake  City  the  great  distributing  centre  in  tiie  mer- 
cantile line.  The  larger  part  of  the  business  enterprises 
of  the  state  have  originated  here. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  of  fine  quality  from 
City  Creek,  Emigration,  and  Parley's,  as  well  as  by  a 
canal  from  Utah  Lake.  This  water  is  i-arried  by  a  very 
efficient  water  system  in  pipes  throughout  the  city,  and 
also  runs  down  the  gutters  and  irrigation  ditches  around 
and  through  every  blot'k.  The  drainage  is  excellent  by 
nature,  because  of  the  slope,  and  has  been  made  more 
efficient  by  a  thorough  system  of  underground  sewers. 
The  city  is  laid  off  for  the  most  part  in  blocks  of  ten 
acres  each,  with  hundred-foot  streets  and  sixteen-foot 
sidewalks  on  each  side.  It  is  a  rommon  feature  of  Utah 
towns  to  be  laid  out  in  this  way,  with  streets  running 
according  to  the  points  of  the  compass,  and  it  gives  them 
an  air  of  regularity  and  openness  which  is  mueh  admired  by 
Eastern  peo})le.  In  addition  the  sides  of  tlie  gutters  have 
been  planted  with  shade  trees.      From  a  ilistance  the  city 


112 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


appears  to  be  situated  in  a  grove  of  beautiful  trees.  The 
principal  streets  are  paved  with  asphalt.  The  city  has 
eighty  miles  of  street  car  lines,  which  are  supplied  by 
electric  power  and  many  modern  cars,  whicli  give  rapid 
transit  to  all  parts. 

The  chief  attractions  of  Salt  Lake  City  are  its  delight- 
ful climate,  hot  and  warm  springs,  commercial  and  indus- 


Fio.  54. 
City  and  County  Biiil(liii<?,  Salt  Lake  City,  built  of  Utah  gray  sandstone. 


trial  advantages,  and  educational  facilities.  It  is  lighted 
by  electricity  and  gas,  is  furnished  with  electric  power 
from  Big  Cottonwood  and  Ogden  for  running  its  machin- 
ery. It  has  an  extensive  telephone  system,  is  the  centre 
of  six  railroads,  and  is  the  site  of  the  State  University 
(Fig.  hi'}),  the  Mormon  Temple  (Fig.  55),  Tabernacle, 
and  Assembly  Hall,  the  C'ity  and  County  Ijiiilding  (Fig. 
54),  the  State  Fair,  four  colleges,  several  academies,  and 
many  churches.     It  has  very  many  fine  buildings,  both 


CITIES   AM)    TOWNS 


118 


mercantile  mid  residence.  It  is  well  supplied  with  hos- 
pitals. Though  the  smelters  are  really  outside  of  the  city, 
they  properly  belong  to  it,  as  they  are  operated  from  it. 
Tliese  are  the  great  Germania,  the  United  States,  and 
Bingham  Consolidated.  Among  the  attractions  adjoining 
Salt  Lake  City  are  City  Creek  Canyon,  Fort  Douglas,  which 


Fig.  55. 

Temple  aii.l  Talitiiiacli-  of  tin-  Latter  Day  Saints,  Salt  Lake  City.    The  Temple 
is  liuilt  of  Utah  jrranite. 


is  a  beautiful  government  post  on  the  east  side  of  the  city, 
several  resorts  in  Parley's  Canyon  (Fig.  45),  Brighton's 
(Fig.  1»),  and  Little  Cottonwood  in  the  heart  of  the 
Wasatch.  The  manufacturing  industries  of  the  city  are 
varied  and  extensive,  the  chief  ones  being  printing 
establishments,  shoe  factories,  foundries,  breweries,  rail- 
way  shops,  and    smelters,   L'm[)loying    over    IXMIO    people. 


114 


UTAH    STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


and  doing  a  business  of  about  forty  millions.  The  city 
is  about  three  miles  wide  by  five  miles  long,  and  in 
1900  had  a  population  of  53,531.  The  bank  clearings  are 
$180,000,000,  and  jobbing  trade,  -^27,000,000. 


Vui.  .')(). 
State  University,  Salt  Lake  City. 

The  other  important  towns  in  Salt  Lake  Valley  are  Mill 
Creek,  Murray,  Brighton,  West  Jordan,  Bingham  Junction, 
Draper,  Riverton,  and  Ilerriman. 

Utah  Valley.  —  This  is  the  most  beautiful  valley  in  the 
state  and  is  well  watered.  The  chief  products  are  fruit, 
hay,  and  root  crops,  especially  beets.  The  leading  town 
is  Provo,  a  city  of  about  6000  inhabitants.  Like  Ogden 
Provo  nestles  close  under  the  Wasatch.     It  is  beautifully 


CITIKS   AM)    TO]V\S  11.") 

situated  on  the  Provo  River,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  rich 
farming  and  fruit  country-  I'rovo  is  tlie  seat  of  Brighani 
Young  Academy  (Fig.  58),  one  of  the  hirgest  schools  in 
the  state,  with  an  atten(hince  of  more  than  1,000.  It 
also  has  a  large  woolen  mill  (Fig.  50),  using  700,000 
pounds  of  wool  yearly,  the  product  being  valued  at 
$200,000.  There  are  two  main  railroads,  and  a  branch 
road  running  up  the  Provo  River  to  Heber.  It  has  a 
foundry,  two  flour  mills,  soda-water  works,  knitting  fac- 
tory, candy  factory,  pottery,  creameries,  lumber  mill,  stone- 
cutting  works,  etc.  It  is  in  easy  reach  of  fine  summer 
resorts  along  the  Provo,  and  also  has  a  bathing  resort  on 
Utah  Lake.  The  State  Insane  Asylum  is  here.  The  Tel- 
luride  Power  Company  is  located  near  Provo,  witli  a  cai)ae- 
ity  of  7500  horse  power. 

The  other  leading  towns  in  this  valley  are  Springville, 
with  a  branch  l)eet-sugar  factory,  Lehi,  where  the  great 
beet  factory  (Fig.  4'J)  is  located,  American  Fork,  Pleasant 
Grove,  Payson,  etc.  Spanish  Fork  has  a  shoe  and  l)room 
factory.  Goshen  is  the  principal  town  in  Goshen  Valley. 
The  principal  products  are  hay,  grain,  and  fruit. 

Juab  Valley.  — The  principal  town  is  Nephi,  which  raises 
fine  fruit,  grain,  and  hay,  has  large  salt  and  g3'psum  de- 
posits and  a  plaster  of  Paris  factory.  It  has  two  railroads. 
Stock  raising  is  one  of  tlie  princi})al  industiies. 

Weber  Valley.  —  Tliere  are  many  little  settlements  along 
this  valley.  The  principal  towns  are  Morgan  and  Coal- 
ville. At  the  latter  ])lai'e  much  coal  has  been  mined. 
Tlie  priuci[)al  occuiialiniis  of  llu'  proplc  arc  llic  raising  of 
stock,  hay.  and  grain. 

Provo  Valley.  — This  also  produces  nuuli  luiy  ami  grain. 
The  principal  towns  are  Heber  and  Midway. 


116  UTAFI   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

Spanish  Fork  River.  —  This  region  is  traversed  by  the 
Rio  (iraiule  Western  Railroad,  and  has  a  number  of  settle- 
ments which  raise  stock  and  grain.  Clear  Creek  at  the 
head  of  the  valley  was  once  quite  a  coal-mining  camp. 

Thistle  Valley.  —  Here  is  an  Indian  settlement  called 
Indianola,  where  they  raise  hay  and  grain. 

Sanpete  Valley.  —  This  is  one  of  the  greatest  valleys 
in  the  state.  It  produces  large  quantities  of  hay  and 
grain,  and  some  fruit  is  raised.  The  settlements  are  un- 
usually large  and  thrifty.  The  principal  towns  are  Manti 
and  Mount  Pleasant.  The  former  has  an  electric  light 
plant,  flour  mill,  two  railroads,  and  good  coal  mines  near  by. 
Here  is  the  Manti  Tem^jle.  There  are  large  deposits  of 
oolitic  sandstone  (a  rock  comi)osed  of  minute  shells)  in  the 
vicinity.  The  Temple  is  made  of  this  stone.  Most  of  the 
people  of  Sanpete  Valley  are  also  engaged  in  sheep  raising. 
Otlicr  leading  towns  are  Moroni,  Fairview,  and  Ephraim. 

Sevier  Valley.  —  Though  some  fruit  is  raised  in  the 
lower  part  of  this  valley,  the  principal  products  are  hay, 
grain,  and  some  beets.  The  principal  town  is  Ric^hfiehl, 
which  supplies  the  mining  camp  of  Gold  Mountain. 
Salina  is  another  thriving  town,  having  large  salt,  gypsum, 
and  oolitic  sandstone  deposits.  Monroe  is  the  second  town 
in  the  valley,  is  one  of  the  most  beautifully  situated  in  the 
state,  and  is  destined  to  become  a  great  health  resort  be- 
cause of  its  mineral  si)rings  and  climate.  Gunnison  is  also 
a  thriving  town  as  well  as  Elsinore,  Joseph  ('ity,  etc.  The 
upper  Sevier  Valley  contains  tlie  l)eautiful  little  settlement 
of  Marysvale,  which  is  the  outlet  of  the  Marysvale  mines, 
and  will  become  a  health  resort.  Other  towns  are  Junc- 
tion, Circleville,  and  Panguitch.  The  latter  is  the  leading 
town  in  the  upper  valley,  and  raises  jnuch  hay,  grain,  and 


CITIES  ASD   TOU'XS  117 

stock.  The  lumber  region  above  is  worked  by  the  people 
of  this  town,  (iniss  N'alley  also  produces  hay  and  grain. 
Its  principal  towns  are  niirr\ille,  Koosharem.  and  Coyoto. 
Beaver  River  Region.  —  There  is  a  narrow  area  lying  on 
the  western  l)ase  of  the  range  from  where  the  Sevier  River 
cuts  through  the  mountains  to  Kanarra.  'i'his  country 
has  knots  of  settlements  scattered  along  the  range.  Tlie 
lirst  two  towns  on  the  north  are  Deseret  and  Oasis,  which 
are  watered  by  the  Sevier  River,  raise  hay  and  grain,  and 
are  the  sui)ply  points  for  the  Fish  Springs  region.  Below 
these  and  near  the  mountain  is  Oak  Creek.  Farther  south 
are  Holden  and  Fillmore.  The  latter  was  once  the  capital 
of  the  state.  West  of  Mount  Belknap  conies  Beaver  Val- 
ley, a  fruit  and  grain  raising  region,  whose  principal  town 
is  Beaver.  This  has  an  academy  and  is  (luite  a  place. 
I'arowan  is  the  next  large  town  lying  near  the  southern 
end  of  this  region.  Cedar  City,  not  far  away,  is  one  of 
the  leading  towns.  Both  raise  nuieh  fruit,  hay,  and 
grain,  and  the  latter  has  large  deposits  of  coal  near  by. 
Milford,  for  a  long  time  the  terminus  of  the  railroad,  lies 
west  of  Beaver  in  the  lower  end  of  lieaver  Valley.  Around 
the  rolling  hills  near  Pine  ^'alley  and  near  the  iron  mines 
are  Iron  Springs.  Iron  City,  Hamlin,  Bine  X'alley,  etc. 

St.  George  Region.  —  Here  they  raise  figs,  almonds,  and 
many  othei-  fruits.  Cotton  and  canaigre  root  are  grown. 
The  people  make  much  wine.  (  diisidcraliK'  hay  and  grain 
are  raised  for  home  consumption.  The  printi[)al  town  is  St. 
(leorge,  Avhich  is  the  seat  of  the  Mormon  Temple  (Fig. 
48).  Other  towns  arc  W'asliingtoii.  Kockville,  Springdale, 
etc.      This  I'cgiou  is  caUc(l  tlic  ••  l)i\ie  country." 

Settlements  along  the  Eastern  Rim  of  the  Great  Basin.  — 
On  the  u[)[ier  N'irgin  before  we  come  to  our  region  proper 


118  UTAH    STATE   SUPPLEMEXT 

are  a  number  of  small  settlements  raising  fruit  and  stock. 
Just  south  of  this  is  Kanab,  which  also  raises  fruit  and 
stock.  On  the  head  of  the  Pahria  are  several  small 
settlements.  On  the  head  of  the  Fremont  liiver  are  sev- 
eral others  such  as  Loa,  Thurber,  and  Teasdale.  All  raise 
hay  and  grain.  There  are  also  several  settlements  on  the 
lower  Fremont  River.  Hanksville  and  Cainville  are  some 
of  them  (Fig.  39).  Opposite  Salina  are  still  other  settle- 
ments along  the  creeks  which  come  out  of  the  C^oal  Range. 
These,  like  the  settlements  below,  raise  hay  and  grain 
and  are  much  interested  in  stock.  The  leading  towns  are 
Castle  Dale,  Huntington,  Orangeville,  Ferron,  etc.  On 
the  Price  River  are  several  towns.  The  leading  one  is 
Price,  whicli  is  tlie  supply  point  for  the  Uinta  country. 
Castle  Gate  is  the  coal-mining  town,  while  Sunnyside, 
another  similar  town,  lies  farther  south. 

Uinta  Region.  —  This  is  a  great  Indian  reservation.  The 
principal  towns  are  Ashley  and  Vernal,  where  they  raise 
considerable  hay  and  grain.  The  pi'incipal  occupation  of 
the  people  is  stock  raising,  farming,  and  trading  with  the 
Indians.  They  have  considerable  coal  and  asphalt  in  this 
locality. 

Green  River  Region  (Figs.  4,  46). — This  has  few  settle- 
ments. Green  River  on  the  extreme  west  and  Moab  on 
the  east  are  admirable  fruit  sections  and  also  raise  cotton. 
The  latter  has  the  finest  fruit  in  the  state,  and  is  the  sup- 
ply point  for  the  La  Sal  Mountains,  where  they  mine  con- 
sid(!ral)]e  gold,  cojiper,  and  uranium. 

Southeastern  Utah. — The  town  of  Bluff  is  located  on 
the  San  .Juan  River  and  is  chiefly  engaged  in  stock  raising, 
though  considerable  fruit,  hay,  and  grain  are  raised. 


CITIKS    AM)    TOWNS  119 

(^iKsnoNs.  —  Ut'scrilic  iIh'  sdt  Imifiils  in  the  n-gion  west  of  the 
Wasatch  valleys.  Wliat  iuf  tlnir  ]iiu{liicts?  Describe  Cache  Valley. 
Describe  its  .soil  and  [noihats.  Describe  its  chief  city.  What  can 
you  say  of  Malad  \'alley?  What  can  you  .say  of  Hear  River  Valley? 
Describe  the  Lakeshore  region,  its  chief  products  and  manufactures. 
A\'hat  can  you  .say  of  Ogden.  its  products  and  manufactures  V  Describe 
Salt  Lake  Valley  and  all  its  industries.  What  can  you  .say  of  Salt 
Lake  CityV  What  are  its  natiUral  facilities?  Why  is  it  a  financial, 
religiou.s.  and  educational  centre?  Describe  its  chief  industries.  De- 
.scriix'  its  resorts.  Describe  its  water  .system,  .street  .system,  .street  car 
.system.  What  are  its  chief  attractions?  Describe  Ttali  ^'alley  and 
its  products.  What  can  you  .say  of  its  leading  city?  Descrilje  Juab, 
Weber,  Provo,  Spanish  York  River,  and  Thistle  valleys.  Describe 
Sanpete  Valley  and  its  products.  What  is  its  chief  town?  Describe 
Sevier  Valley  and  its  [jroduct.s.  What  can  you  say  of  its  leading  towns? 
\\'hat  can  you  .say  of  the  Beaver  River  region  and  the  country  .south 
to  Kanarra?  What  can  you  .say  nf  ilic  St.  (ieorge  region?  What  can 
you  say  of  the  Uinta,  Green  River,  and  sinitheastern  I'tah  regions? 


CHAPTER   X 

EDUCATION 

Education.  —  Very  soon  after  the  settlement  of  Utah  the 
people  began  their  educational  system.  For  many  years 
their  isolation  from  the  outside  world  made  progress  in  this 
direction  slow,  notwithstanding   the    Deseret   University 


Fig.  "iT. 
Agricultural  College  at  Logan. 

was  organized  in  early  years  and  did  mucli  good.  Of  late 
years  the  educational  system  has  developed  greatly  and 
much  enthusiasm  is  shown  in  improving  the  school  work. 
In  1890  a  law  was  enacted  by  the  state,  requiring  a  uniform 
course  of  study,  and  tin;  various  educational  institutions 
have  been  brought  into  a  harmonious  system  working  for 
a  common  end.     High  schools  have  been  organized  in  many 

120 


EDUCATION 


121 


of  the  leading  towns  tor  givinj^  advanced  instiU(;tion. 
The  State  University  at  Salt  Lake  City  has  been  <,n'eatly 
enlarged  and  supj)lied  with  libraries  and  suitable  appa- 
ratus. Connected  with  it  is  the  State  Normal  School, 
with  its  branch  at  Cedar  City.  The  State  Agricultural 
College  is  located  at  Logan  (Fig.  57),  with  an  additional 
experiment  station  in  the  St.  George  region,  and  is  doing 
much  good  in  educating  communities  along  practical  lines. 


Fk!.    .->S. 

Briuliain  Vomii;  A<'a(lciny  at  I'lovo. 


The  MoruKUi  (  Imrrh  has  also  develnpt'd  an  educalional 
system  of  its  own  which  is  now  highly  organized,  with  tlie 
Latter  Day  Saints'  I'niversity  located  in  Salt  Lake  City, 
Hrigham  Young  College  at  Logan.  Urigliam  Young  Acad- 
emy at  Provo,  and  a  nuiuKci-  I'l'  other  arailcuiics  scattered 
throughout  the  stair.  These  institutions  are  growing 
rapidly  in  attendanct-  and  usefulness  to  their  people. 

The  other  religituis  (leiiomiiiatioiis  in  I  tali  \\;\\v  also 
their  sectarian   schools  and  (■oUeges.       The   Presbyterians 


122 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


have  Westminster  College  in  Salt  Lake  City  and  sev- 
eral academies  throughout  the  state.  The  Congregation- 
alists  have  two  academies.  The  Catholics  have  one 
college  in  Salt  Lake  City  and  several  academies  in  the 
city  and  other  parts  of  Utah.  The  Episcopalians  have 
several  schools. 

The  state  scyiool  system  is  much  the  same  as  that  prevalent  in 
other  states.     There  is  a  State   Superintendent  of  schools  who  has 


Latter  Day  Saints'  University,  Salt  Lake  City,  partially  completed, 
tithing  building  is  in  the  foreground. 


The  old 


general  oversight  of  all  the  schools  in  the  state,  collects  school  statis- 
tics, and  publishes  regularly  all  facts  of  general  interest  regarding  the 
schools.  He  is  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years  at  a  salary  of 
•flSOO  a  year.  The  State  Board  of  Education  consists  of  the  State 
Superintendent,  President  of  the  University,  President  of  the  Agri- 
cultural College,  and  two  other  members  appointed  by  the  Governor 
and  approved  by  the  Legislature.  The  appointees  hold  office  for  four 
years.  This  Board  issues  state  high  school  and  grammar  diplomas, 
to  persons  over  twenty  years  of  age,  which  are  good  for  life  if  the 
persons  receiving  them  have  had  two  years  of  successful  experience 


EDL'CATIO.W  123 

ami  do  not  cease  to  teach  for  a  lunger  period  than  five  years.  They 
also  issue  state  certificates  whicii  are  good  for  five  jears.  Gradnates 
of  the  State  Normal  also  can  teach  without  being  reexamined,  under 
certain  conditions. 

Once  in  five  years  the  state  adopts  official  text-hooks.  The  com- 
mittee which  selects  the.se  books  is  composed  of  the  State  Superintend- 
ent, President  of  the  State  Normal,  and  the  County  Superintendents. 

Each  county  has  a  County  Superintendent  who  has  supervision  of 
all  county  school  matters,  much  the  same  as  the  State  Superintendent 
does  of  the  state  at  large.  He  is  elected  for  two  years.  The  County 
Board  of  Examiners  is  composed  of  the  Superintendent  ami  two  mem- 
bers appointed  by  him.  This  Board  i.ssues  certificates  good  for  a 
year.  J2ach  county  must  hold  one  School  Institute  every  year  which 
shall  not  continue  less  than  two  nor  more  than  ten  days.  All  teachers 
are  required  to  attend  this  Institute.  Cities  of  the  first  and  second 
class  (those  having  a  population  of  5000  or  more)  are  exempt  from 
the  control  of  the  County  Superintendent.  They  are  managed  by 
City  Boards  of  Education.  In  cities  of  the  first  class  ("JO.OOd  popula- 
tion or  over)  there  are  ten  members  of  the  Board  elected,  two  from 
each  precinct  (all  cities  of  first  and  second  class  are  divided  into  five 
precincts).  They  hold  office  for  four  years.  Half  of  them  are  elected 
every  two  years.  In  cities  of  the  second  class  there  are  five  members 
of  tiie  Board  who  also  hold  office  for  four  years.  This  Board  directs 
all  city  school  matters,  adopts  city  text-books,  etc.  It  elects  a  City 
School  Superintendent  who  holds  office  for  two  years.  The  City  Super- 
intendent selects  two  persons  who  with  him  form  the  City  Board  of 
Examiners.  This  Board  issues  certificates  to  city  teachers.  The 
County  Commissioners  separate  each  county  into  school  districts 
(outside  of  the  cities  of  the  first  and  .second  class).  Over  these  dis- 
tricts three  tru.stees  preside,  who  are  elected  by  the  people  and  hold 
office  for  three  years.  One  is  elected  each  year.  They  select  teachers 
and  have  general  supervision  of  the  schools  in  their  district. 

All  children  over  six  and  under  eighteen  years  of  age  are  required 
to  attend  school.  Each  city  can  levy  a  tax  not  to  exceed  5i  mills  on 
the  assessed  property  of  tiie  city  for  the  support  of  its  schools.  The 
county  tax  must  not  exceed  5  mills.  The  district  tax  must  not  exceed 
3  mills.  The  state  tax  is  usually  80  mills.  The  state  educational 
institutions  all  have   their    boards   appointed   by  the    Governor   and 


124  UTAH   STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

approved  by  tlie  Legislature  and  hold  office  lor  four  years.  The 
University  has  nine  regents,  the  Agricultural  College  seven  trustees, 
the  Reform  School  three  members,  the  Institute  for  the  Deaf,  Uunib, 
and  Bliud  three  members.  Tlie  Agricultural  College  must  hold  at 
least  one  Farmer's'  Institute  in  each  county  a  year. 

The  course  of  study  adopted  by  the  state  has  three  departments, 
primary,  grammar,  and  high  school.  The  primary  covers  a  begin- 
ner's grade  and  four  other  grades  or  years  of  study ;  the  grammar 
covers  four  years  or  grades ;  the  high  school  covers  two  years.  Na- 
ture study  covers  all  the  grades,  and  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
adds  physiology.  The  pupils  in  each  grade  are  expected  to  study  in 
their  seasons  plants,  animals,  minerals,  weather,  and  geography  so  far 
as  it  applies  to  nature  study  proper.  Language,  grammar,  reading, 
spelling,  arithmetic,  drawing,  music,  and  physical  culture  are  studied 
through  all  the  grades;  phonics  continue  through  four  grades,  pen- 
manship through  six,  geography  begins  with  the  fourth  grade,  and 
history  with  the  sixth.  The  high  school  course  completes  arithmetic, 
algebra,  civil  government,  physiology,  bookkeeping,  penmanship,  plane 
geometry,  elementary  physics,  elementary  botany,  elementary  zoology, 
and  continues  English  and  history. 

The  Salt  Lake  City  school  system  follows  the  state  system,  but 
divides  each  grade  into  "  A  "  and  "  B,"  witli  jiromotions  each  half 
year.  Its  high  school  course  covers  four  years,  and  fits  for  the  soplio- 
move  year  in  the  State  University  and  other  colleges.  The  sessions 
begin  at  9  a.m.  and  close  at  :5.10  j>.m.  The  school  year  is  thirty-eight 
weeks  long.  Promotions  shall  be  made  when  the  general  average  of 
a  pupil  is  70%  or  more  in  every  study;  if  any  study  is  less  than  70% 
then  the  average  of  all  other  studies  must  be  7")%.  Pupils  standing 
90%  or  over  can  have  special  i)roni()tions  every  three  months. 

SUMMARY 

Utah  is  the  eightli  state  in  the  Union  in  size.  Being 
the  only  state  which  was  settled  systematically  and  under 
one  direction,  its  cities  and  towns  have  features  peculiarly 
their  own.  The  mineral  resources  are  very  great,  the 
state  being  among  the  leaders  in  the  product  of  coal,  sil- 


GENERAL    REVIEW  QrESTIONS  125 

ver,  lead,  and  copper.  There  are  very  large  deposits  of 
salt  and  building  stone.  The  lofty  mountains  furnish 
ihrougli  ihc  streams  sul'licient  water-])o\ver  for  all  pur- 
poses. The  scenery  is  niagniticcnt,  and  the  climate  so 
varied  that  even  the  most  fastidious  ought  to  be  satisfied. 
Great  Salt  Lake  and  llie  mountains  are  faiuous  resorts 
both  for  residents  and  tourists.  Utah  is  a  land  of  irriga- 
tion, and  occupies  a  leading  position  in  the  central  West 
in  fruit  and  farm  products.  Being  centrally  located 
between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific,  the  state  has 
become  the  commercial  centre  of  the  inter-mountain 
region,  and  the  great  smelting  point  of  the  region  west 
of  the  plains. 

QiKSTioxs. —  Wlii'M  did  the  educational  system  in  Itah  begin? 
Has  there  been  any  iniprovement  since?  ^Mention  tlie  state  insti- 
tutions and  their  locations.  What  can  yon  say  of  the  educational 
system  of  the  Latter  Day  Saints?  Vriiat  can  you  say  of  the  otlier 
religious  denominations? 

Skakch  t^rKSTioxs.  —  Secure  a  copy  of  tlie  state  hiw  establisliing 
the  present  educational  system,  and  find  out  every  detail.  Who  are 
the  officers  and  teachers,  and  what  are  the  scluiols  of  your  county? 
Wliat  method  is  being  used  to  beautify  your  scliool  and  the  grounds, 
and  what  can  be  done  to  make  them  attractive  places?  Can  you  give 
any  reason  why  churclies  and  schools  are  generally  without  beautiful 
grounds  or  attractions? 

GENERAL    REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

PiiYSiCAi.  Fkatckks.  —  When  did  Itali  first  show  land  above  the 
sea?  AVhen  was  all  of  Utah  above  the  sea?  What  forces  are  antago- 
nistic to  each  other?  Trace  the  boundary  of  Utah  at  the  end  of  the 
Coal  Age.  When  was  our  coal  formed?  How?  What  ancient  lakes 
were  in  Utah?  When  was  tlie  Great  Basin  Divide  formed?  What 
about  the  ancient  climate?  How  does  the  Wasatcii  differ  from  the 
Coal  Range?  What  are  the  chief  mountains  in  the  state?  What 
are  the  leading  vallevs,  and  in  what  do  they  excel?     Where  are  the 


126  UTAH    STATE   SUPPLEMENT 

great  plains?  Where  are  tlie  great  canyons?  AVhy?  What  causes 
volcanoes  and  hot  springs?  Explain  erosion  and  deposition.  What 
causes  cloudbursts?  What  kind  of  canyons  do  water  and  ice  make? 
What  governs  the  rapidity  of  erosion  ?  Do  deserts  depend  on  chemi- 
cal changes  for  their  character  ?  Can  they  be  redeemed  ?  Wliat  effect 
have  glaciers?  What  causes  scenery?  How  are  minerals  grouped? 
What  causes  mineral  veins?  Wliat  was  the  greatest  area  of  Great 
Salt  Lake  at  anytime?  What  is  it  now?  What  is  the  percentage 
of  salt  in  the  water  ?  How  does  the  surface  vary  ?  What  effect  does 
irrigation  have  on  it?  What  is  peculiar  to  Utah  climate?  AVhat  is 
the^climate  of  St.  George?  Salt  Lake  City?  What  is  the  general 
soil  of  Utah? 

Life 

Describe  the  life  zones  and  their  limits,  and  cliaracteristic  animals 
and  plants.  How  did  the  present  flora  of  Utah  come  to  be  as  it  is? 
What  devices  do  plants  use  for  protection  against  enemies  ?  Climate  ? 
What  is  peculiar  to  the  plants  of  the  St.  George  region?  Salt  Lake 
desert  ?    Wasatch  valleys  ?    What  is  the  timber  of  the  high  mountains  ? 

Industries 

What  are  the  two  leading  industries  in  Utah?  Name  the  leading 
mining  camps.  Gold  mining  camps.  Lead  camps.  Silver  camps. 
AVhat  camps  have  wet  mines?  What  professions  are  dangerous? 
AVhere  is  iron  found?  What  camp  has  silver  in  sandstone?  What 
sections  produce  the  most  hay?  Grain?  Fruit?  Cotton?  Sheep? 
Where  is  beet  sugar  made?  What  have  dairies?  Canning  factories? 
What  has  the  most  manufactures  of  all  kinds?  What  kinds  of 
irrigation  are  used  in  Utah  ?     Where  is  stock  raising  done  ? 

Settlements,  Cities,  and  Towns 

How  were  the  settlements  of  Utah  made?  Where  located,  and 
why?  How  connected,  and  why?  Describe  the  transportation  routes 
and  their  benefit  to  the  various  sections. 

Name  the  counties  of  the  state,  bound  them  and  give  their  county 
seats.  Name  the  cities  of  the  first,  second,  and  tliird  class.  Describe 
each  valley  in  the  state  and  name  the  leading  city.  Name  the  towns 
on  the  Rio  Grande  Railroad  main  line ;  on  the  branch  lines.  Name  the 
towns  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.     Name  the  towns  on  the  Oregon 


GENERAL    /.'AT/AII'   (^lESTIONS  127 

Short  Line  Railroad.  Name  the  towns  on  the  Sanpete  Valley  Railroad. 
Xanie  the  towns  on  the  .Mcrciir  Railroail.  What  is  on  the  Saltair  Rail- 
road? How  would  you  go  from  your  home  to  reach  Moah?  Kanab? 
St.  George?  Ibapah?  Salt  Lake  City?  Logan?  Vernal?  Name  the 
leading  mining  towns,  agricultural  towns.  Describe  Salt  Lake  City, 
Ogden,  Logan,  Provo.  Give  the  reasons  for  their  location  where  they 
are. 

Describe  the  state  government,  also  that  of  your  county  and  town 
or  precinct.  Describe  the  educational  system  of  your  county,  town, 
and  school.     For  what  is  Utah  noted? 

Topical  Review  adapted  to  a  Genekal  Review  of  the  State, 
HY  Sections,  such  as  Salt  Lake  Valley 

( 1 )  IMivsuAL  Fkati'hes.  —  Relief,  drainage,  water-power,  climate, 
water  su}iply,  soil. 

(2)  Natikal  Rksoi'kces.  —  Mineral,  scenery,  grazing,  agriculture, 
timber. 

(3)  Indcstkies.  —  ((()  Farming,  horticulture,  dairying;  (//)  saw 
mills;  (f)  mining:  precious  metals,  copper,  lead,  iron,  coal,  building 
stone,  salt,  gypsum,  oil,  rare  minerals;  (d)  manufactures. 

(4)  How  are  the  industries  influenced  by  the  relief  and  natural 
resources  of  tlie  region  ? 

(5)  Traxsih)RTATION  Facilities.  —  (a)  How  affected  by  the 
relief?  How  laid  out  in  the  first  place?  (h)  How  they  have  affected 
the  growth  of  the  various  towns  favorably  and  unfavorably.  How  the 
various  industries. 

(6)  Cities  and  Towns. —  Location  and  reasons  therefor. 

(7)  Other  Facts  of  Interest.  —  Antiquities,  history,  associa- 
tions, methods  of  settlement. 

OCTLINE   FOR   Tol'ICAL  ReVIEW  OF  CiTIES  AND  ToWNS 

(1)  Loc.\TioN. —  Fart  of  state,  county,  valley,  or  mountain  range. 

(2)  Special  Reasons  for  Location  and  Growth.  —  Agricul- 
tural, horticultural,  grazing,  mining,  transportation,  etc. 

(3)  Leading  industrit^s. 

(4)  How  does  location  favor  the  industries? 

(5)  Other  Facts  of  Interest.  —  In  what  does  the  city  excel? 
Historical,  religious,  educational,  business. 


128 


UTAH  STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


Reference  Books 

Report  of  Fremont's  Expedition  ;  Stansbury's  Ex])("dition  ;  Irving's 
works ;  King's  Report  on  the  40th  Parallel ;  Wheeler's  Report ;  Button's 
Report  on  the  Grand  Canyon;  Powell's  Grand  Canyon  Expedition; 
Gilbert's  Geology  of  the  Henry  Mountains;  High  Plateaus  of  Utah; 
Gilbert's  Lake  Bonneville ;  Russell's  Lake  Lahontan ;  Reports  of  the 
Geological  Survey ;  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology ;  Tullidge's 
History  of  Salt  Lake  City ;  Whitney's  History  of  Utah ;  Bancroft's 
History  of  Utah  ;  Report  on  Internal  Commerce,  1890;  Flora  of  Utah 
(in  Tullidge's  Western  Galaxy). 


TABLES 

PRODUCTION   OF   METALS 

Gold  Silver  Lead 

1880 *lG5.iT3  $4,029,501  .|IU1,441 

1890  .  .       (599. TOO  8,492,'209  1.^95,4r>t 

1900  .     .     .    4,2<;3,414  6,248,010  3,122,863 

1901 3,945,303  6,801,816  8,210,96T 

Utah  stands  sixth  iu  the  iiroduction  of  gold,  and  third  in  silver. 


Copper 

$76,536 
2,514,597 
3,750,247 


FARM   PRODUCTS 

Acream'e  Yield  per  Acre  Bushels 

Corn 8,459                        20  169,180 

Wheat 176,^95                        20.9  3,697.106 

Oats 25,577                        35.9  918,214 

Barlev 5,964                        36.5  217,686 

Rye  " 3,383                        17.5  59,202 

Potatoes      ....      5,500  118                                649.000 

Hay              ....   192,398  2.65                             509.855  tons 

Cotton 40  ....                              13,000  lbs. 

Sugar ....  17,1191,220  lbs. 

Wool ....  14,136,951  lbs. 

PRODUCTS 

Number  I 
Beets,  tons 150,000  |  Alfalfa  seed,  lbs 

GENERAL  STATISTICS,  1901 

Value      I 

Coal |3,.')00,000      Dairy 

Asphalt 200,000  !   Misc 


Value 

$106,583 

2,033,408 

404,014 

119,727 

80,785 

311,520 

4,053,-347 

934 


Number 
1,200,000 


Value 

12,000,000 

1,700,000 


STATISTICS 


129 


STOCK 


Number  Value 

Horses  and  Mules  .     .      S5,682       11,874.753 
Cattle 346,567         8,576,952 

R.R.  Mileage,  ISIO. 

Street  Car  Lines,  95. 


Sheeji 
Hogs. 


Number 

2,2&4,&37 

53,4S9 


Value 
$6,150,33U 
372,114 


Telegraph  Lines.  1S54.  Telephone  Lines,  2105. 

Incorporated  Canal  Companies,  |27,000,0o0. 


DIVIDENDS    I'AID   liY    UTAH    .MINKS   Ti)    lOo; 


Ajax *1,000.000 

BuUion-Bcck 2,479,400 

Cent.  Eu 2.i;07,700 

Mercur  Con •.'.'.•O.O.iiOO 

Carisa 175,000 

Crescent 280,000 

Chloride  Pt 5,000 

Dalv 2,925,000 

Dalv  West 1.895,000 

Dalton  and  Lark 350,000 

Di.\ie 15,000 

Eureka  Hill 1,850,000 

Galena 71,000 

Gemini 950,000 

Geyser-Marion 96,000 

Grand  Central 691,500 

Hornsllver 5,342,000 


Mammoth $1,870,000 

Maxficld 118,000 

May  Day 18,000 

Merciir' 1,483,000 

Ontario 14,7*2,500 

Petro 33,000 

Quincy 1,050,000 

SiUer  Kinif 4,950,000 

Sacranicntci 127,000 

S.  S\yansi-a 275,000 

S\yansea 806.500 

Utah 192,800 

Uncle  Sam 45,000 

Utah  Con 750,000 

Highland  Boy,  etc 732,000 

Yankee  Con 75,000 


TABLE   OF   ELEVATIONS 


Feet 

Adairville 4,400 

American  Fork 4,5&i 

Antelope  Is.  Pk 6,660 

Aquarius  Plat Iii.oihi  to  11,000 

Bear  Valley 6,600 

Beayer 5,916 

Beaver  Dam  Mt- 8,100 

Belknap  Pk 11,894 

Bingham 5,924 

Bingham  Junci.             4,366 

Brigham  CItv 4.476 

Camp  Flovd'  Pu>> 5.234 

Castle  Gate 6.322 

Cedar  City .'),726 

Circle  Vailey 6,UMt 

Clayton's  Pk 11,889 

Coalville 5,596 

Colob  Plat ^.(Mlo  to  9,0(K) 

Koosharem 6,850 

Cove  Fort 6,0(Kt 

Deep  Creek 5,025 

Deseret 4,M1 

K 


Feet 

Dug^vav  Pass 5,500 

E.  Tavaputs  Plat 5,500  to  9,500 

Echo 5,480 

Ellen  Mt 11.410 

El  Vado  dc  los  I'adies  C.>lonido  \i.        3,194 

Emma's  Park    .     .  7,370 

Emmon's  Peak      .     .  13,694 

Escalante  Desert ,i.mxi  to  5,500 

Eureka 6,400 

Fairfield 4,866 

Fillmore 6,025 

Fish  Lake 6,790 

Gilbert's  Pk 13,687 

Goshen 4.482 

(;r.iss  Valley <!.2i>0  to  7.500 

Green  T;iv«  r                                         .  4,021 

Gunnison  .M20 

Hardy's 5,4S7 

HillersMt n.W> 

Skull  Valley 4,365 

Ibapah  Pk 12,400 

Iron  City 6,099 


130 


UTAH   STATE  SUPPLEMENT 


TABLE   OF   ELEVATIONS  (Co/,tiiivecl) 


Johnson's  Pass (i,'23" 

Juab f>,iil'.» 

Kaibab  Plat (iJ)Oii  to  ^,lHl(l 

Kauab 5.0?.' 

Kanab  Plat 7,iXlO 


Kanarra    .     .     . 
Kamas      .     .     . 
Kimball's.  Parlov' 
La  Motte  Pk.    . 
Leeds  .... 


5.411) 
G.:<i)4 

3,400 


Lehl 4.517 

Lewiston  Pk 10.(;-.'3 

Loiran 4,5i)!) 

Logan  Pk 10,004 

Lone  Pk 11,295 

Marysvale 5,sOS 

Mercur (i,7(M) 

Milford 4.i)(ts 

Moab 8,900 

Monroe 5,3S0 


MontpoliiT 

Mount  (arniel 

Mount  Plca.saiit  .  .  .  . 
Musinia  Pk..  Mollie's  \i|i|> 
Nebo  Mt 


Nephi 


5,793 
5,2.50 


10.940 
11,992 


5,060 


Feet 

4,303 

6,273 

8,130 

6,851 

5,970 

Patino.s  Head 9,830 

Pine  Valley 5,200  to  6,000 

Potato  Valley 5.700  to  7,000 

Piovo  .     .     '. 4,517 

Provo  Pk 11,060 


Of^deii  .  .  .  . 
Pann-iiitch  .  , 
Panii,niitcli  ]>ake 
Park  City  .  . 
Paiowan  .     .     , 


Pabbit  Valley 
Ki.'hlield  .  ; 
Kjyerbed  .  . 
St.  tJeoige  . 
Salt  Lake  City 


Salt  Lake  \h 
Seyier  I)esei-t  . 
Simpson's  Spr. 
Soldio!!'  Summit 
Stockton  .     .     . 


rl 


Strawberry  Valley     . 
Thistle  Valley   .    '.     . 
Tooele  Pk..  (irantsviile 
Uinta  \'alley      .     .     . 
Waas  Mt.      .... 

Wasateb  Plat.  .     .     . 


G,S00  to  7,500 
.     .        5,283 

4.300  to  4,400 
.  .  2,880 
.     .        4,300 

.  .  4,220 
5,000  to  5,200 
.  .  5,000 
.  .  7,465 
.     .        5,100 


7,400  to  8,000 
5,.500  to  6,200 

.  .  10,396 
4.700  to  0,000 

.     .       12.320 


.  S.OOO  to  11,000 


POPPLATIOX    OF  INCOliPOKATED   CITIES   AND   TOWNS,  1890  AND   1900 


1900  .        1890 

Alpine 520  466 

American  Fork 2,732  .  .  . 

Bear  River 362  .  .  . 

Beaver 1,701  .  .  . 

Bountiful 1,442  .  .  . 

Brigham 2.859  2,139 

Castle  Dale 559  303 

Cedar  City 1.425  967 

Coalville  " 808  1,160 

Corinne 323  .  .  . 

Elsinore 625  ... 

Ephraira 2,036  .  .  . 

Eureka 3.0S5  1,733 

Fairview 1.119  844 

Farmington 968  ... 

Fillmore 1,037  .  .  . 

Fountain  ffreen       ....  755  677 

(rlenwood 422  .  . 

(Joshen 645  298 

Grantsville 1,058  .  .  . 

Gunnison 829  .  .  . 

Heber 1.534  1.538 

Huntington 6.53  513 

Hyrum 1.652  .  .  . 


1900 

Kanab 710 

Kaysville 1,70S 

Lehi 2,719 


Logan 5,451 

Mammoth  .......  1,585 

Manti 2,408 

.\Iendon 494 

.Vlercnr 8,251 

Midway 719 

Monroe 1,057 

Morgan fiOO 

Moroni 1,224 

Mt.  Plea.sant 2,372 

Nephi 2,208 

Newton 429 

Ogden 16.313 

Panguitcli 883 

Park  City 3.759 

I'arowan 1,039 

Payson 2,636 

Pleasant  Grove 2.400 

Price 5:« 

Provo 6.185 

Kedmond 451 


1890 
409 
548 

4',  565 
1,950 


880 

338 

958 

2,254 

2,034 


14,889 
2,85(1 
2,18.5 

1.920 

209 

5,159 


STATISTICS 


131 


POIHLATION    OF    INXOUroKATKl)   CITIKS    AND   TuWNS    ((onlinued) 


1900 

1V.I0 

RichfleUl     . 

i,yf.t» 

l.Ml 

Kichnioml  . 

1,111 

St.  Geoiffi-  . 

l.OOO 

Salem     .     . 

Mt4 

527 

Salina     .    . 

......        s47 

Salt  Lake  ('it\ 

53,531 

44,!>43 

Saiidv     .     . 

1,030 

Saiitaquin   . 

S89 

Scipio     .     . 

5T8 

Scotteld  .     . 

(42 

1900 

Siiiitlifiel.l 1,494 

8|larli^ll  Kink 2,735 

Spriiif,' t;.ly 1.135 

Sprintrvilli- 3,422 

Tooele 1,200 


Vernal  .  . 
Wasbiii(rton 
Wellsville  . 
Willaicl  .     . 


6&1 
529 

908 
580 


1890 

1,080 
2,214 
1,044 
2,^9 


492 


I'OlTI.Ario.V   OF   SALT    LAKE   CITY 


S,23C      IStlO 44,843 

12,S.>4      1900 53,531 


1860 

1S70 

1880 20,708 

Area  of  Utah,  84,970  si).  mi.  Population  in  1900,  276,749. 

There  are :   2,623  Indians  ;  572  Chinese  ;  417  Japanese  ;  672  Negroes. 


ASSESSED    VALrE,   SCHOOL   POPULATION,    AREA,   AND    POPULATION 
BY   COUNTIES,    1900 

Assessed  School                  Area  Popii- 

Value  Population             Acres  lation 

Beaver $1,174,153  1,119  1,W9,000  3,613 

B()\  Elder         .Mss.7o7  3,409  3,4*8.000  10,009 

Cache       .               .5,(>42,392  4,601                    766,000  18,139 

Carbon 1.794,971  1,421                   97.5,000  5,004 

Davis 3,755,201  2,801                   IsO.OOO  7,996 

Emery 1.324.^73  1.7;i4  2.790.440  4,697 

Gartield         7ol.f>.">S  1.176  3.24ni«mj  3,400 

Grand 1,ii6n.493  239  2.401.000  1.149 

Iron 1.137,C.r)7  1,227  2,lo4.iHiO  3.546 

Juab 4,080,627  2,508  2.122,000  10,082 

Kane .544,867  586  2.710,(KW  1,811 

Millard 2,124.4M>  l,si9  4.2(V..0(K)  5.678 

Mor"an 6-^,n9^  tK2                  :{m;.(Hio  2.045 

Piute        .               .'>71.'^28  :<:i(i                   4^4.0lM.l  1,954 

Rich 911.010  710                  678,(HXI  1,946 

Salt  Lake           41.02<.3.^:?  22.427                   496.IKI0  77,725 

San  Juan 312.9S3  178  .5,..7r000  1023 

Sanpete                        4.690.6sl  5,186  l.iio.t.iMHi  lt),31« 

Sevier                                .     .     .                 2,029  349  2.869  1.217.i>oo  8,4.51 

Summit   .     .     .     . 5,041.796  2,663  l,2l.4.ow»  9,439 

Tooolo                                          .                 2  69.5.243  1.745  4.4:11,000  7,36] 

Uintah     ;;■.;■.'.....       1.2:^4.423  1.75s  3.:{29,OtH»  6,458 

Utah                                .                   .     10  iWt  494  11.3^6  l,:?(W.oiKi  32.4.'>6 

Wasatch       l.:f^2..-.>2  1..W9  2.671,0(M(  4.7:^6 

Washington M2,4^  1.616  l,.562,iKiO  4,612 

Wavne 346.r>.5<l  737  1„V29.000  1.907 

Weber 11,251,402  8,884                  3.50,000  '2\t3i} 

62,541,440  276,749 
Negroes  672,  Chinese  672,  Jajianese  417.  Indians  2,623. 


INDEX 


Ab.ajn  Moiiiitaiiis,  'M). 

Ailjutant-CiciiiTal,  1U<). 

Adoption  of  text-books,  1'2H. 

Age  of  Maniinals,  70. 

Asriciiltural  College,  KHJ,  IL'O,  121. 

A>;rieulture,  8;i,  85. 

Aja.x  mine,  51. 

Alfalfa,  ST. 

Almond,  lif),  .S7,  117. 

.\lpine,  !*3. 

Aha,  49,  -,'2. 

Alnni,  512. 

Alverde  mine,  .54. 

American  Fork,  9'^.  115. 

Auieriean  Fork  Canyon,  14,  33,  34, 

.Vmerican  Fork  Creek,  "25. 

.\meriean  Fork  Railroail,  !'5. 

Ainpliitlieatre,  17,  oo. 

Animal  Life,  80. 

Antelope,  80. 

Anthracite,  2. 

.\nthracite-graphite,  M. 

.Appeal.s,  101. 

Aqui  .Mi>iintains,  l(i,  23,  .37,  78. 

Arctic,  (i5. 

Arizona,  '_',  4,  71,  05. 

Ashley,  IIH. 

Aspen,  in,  77. 

Asphalt,  4,  40. 

Assaying.  W. 

Assembly  Hall,  112. 

Assessed  \'alues,  131. 

Assessor,  103. 

Atlas  mine,  52. 

.Attorney,  lO.S. 

Attorney-General,  102. 

Auditor,  '.•<»,  103. 

Badger,  SO,  SI. 
Bailiff.  H)l. 


Balsam,  77. 

Bank  Examiner,  100. 

Barbee  and  Walker,  53. 

Barriers,  71. 

Bars,  13. 

Basalt,  .37. 

Base  ores.  44. 

Basin  ranges,  4. 

Bastard  pine,  77. 

Bathing,  (J3. 

Bats,  81. 

Bear,  81. 

Bear  Lake,  34. 

Bear  River,  23.  24.  34. 
41.    Bear  River  Canal,  83. 

Bear  River  X'alley,  25,  107. 

Beaver,  52,  81,  117. 

Beaver  Creek,  27. 

Beaver  Dam  Mountains.  .54. 

Beaver  River  region,  117. 

Beaver  Valley,  117. 

Beet  Family,  7(5. 

Beetles,  80,"  81. 

Benches,  13,  80. 

Big  Cottonwood,  112. 

Big  Cottonwotxl  Canyon,  14,  33. 

Bingham,  4!",  110. 

Bingham  Canyon  Railroad,  W. 

Bingham  Consolidated,  49. 

Bingham  Consolidated  smelter,  li: 

Bingham  Junction,  114. 

Birch,  78. 

Birds,  81. 

Bismuth,  53. 

I  Bla.-k  bass.  80. 

I  Blackbirds.  8(1. 

Blacksmith  Fork  Canyon.  .34. 
I  Blacksmith  Fork  River,  24. 
I  Blue  jays,  81. 
I  Blue  Mountains,  30. 
133 


134 


INDEX 


HlutT,  ;30,  118. 

Boards,  Deaf  and  Dumb,  101 ;  Dentists, 

101 ;   Education,    101 ;    Horticulture, 

lOU ;   Corrections,  101 ;   Labor,    100 ; 

Land,  101 ;  Loans,  KX) ;  State  Library, 

100;  State  University,  101. 
Bonanzas,  44. 
Bonneville,  (i. 
Book  Cliffs,  15,  2(5,  37. 
Bountiful,  92,  107. 
Breweries,  113. 
Brick  clay,  42. 
Brick  yard,  109. 
Bridal' Veil  Fall,  32. 
Brighani  City,  107. 
Brijiham  Young,  90,  97. 
Brijcliam  Younsi  Academy,  113,  121. 
Brigham  Young  College.'lOG,  121. 
Brighton,  114. 
Brighton's,  19,  34,  113. 
Buffalo,  81. 
Bug-holes,  44. 
Building  Inspector,  103. 
KuiMing  stone,  .36,  40. 
BuUiou-Beck  mine,  51. 
Bullion  Canyon,  '.H. 
Bullion  Creek,  27. 
Burrville,  117. 
Butterflies,  80. 

Cache  Valley,  24,  50,  66,  69,  87,  94,  95, 

10(),  107. 
Cacti,  72. 
Cactus  mine,  52. 
Cainville,  118. 
California  (juail,  80. 
Canaigre  root,  117. 
Cane  Spring  mine,  54. 
Cannonville,  7. 
Capitol  Wash,  33. 
Captain  Bonneville,  56. 
Carbonic  acid,  43. 
Carisa  mine,  51. 
Carnegie  Library,  108. 
Carp,  80. 

Carrington  Island,  62. 
Carrying  power  of  water,  12. 
Castle  Dale,  118. 
Castle  Gate,  33,  118. 


Castle  Gate  coal  mine,  37. 

Catholics,  122. 

Cattle,  88. 

Cedar  City,  38,  93,  117,  121. 

Centeuuial-Eureka  mine,  51. 

Central  Utah,  6(;. 

Centreville,  93,  107. 

Chambers'  station,  1.3,  59. 

Chemical  changes,  15. 

Chief  Justice,  99. 

Chimneys,  44. 

Chipmmiks,  81. 

Choke-cherry,  78. 

Chubs,  59,  80. 

Chutes,  44. 

Circleville,  116. 

Cisco,  33. 

Cities  and  Towns,  105. 

Cities  of  the  first  class,  103. 

Cities  of  the  second  class,  103. 

City  and  County  Building,  41,  112. 

City  Boards  of  Education,  123. 

City  C(juncil,  103. 

City  Creek,  111. 

City  Creek  Canyon,  113. 

City  Government,  103. 

City  judges,  103. 

City  officers,  103. 

Clarkston,  107. 

Clay,  68. 

Clear  Creek.  27,  116. 

Clerk,  101. 

Clifton,  53. 

Climate,  7,  8,  65. 

Cloudburst,  12. 

Coal,  3,  4,  26,  37. 

Coal  Age,  2,  14,  40. 

Coal  Mine  Inspector,  100. 

Coal  Range,  6,  14,  15,  26,  28,  30,  37,  40, 

78,  no,  118. 
Coalville,  25,  38,  115. 
Coke,  39. 
Coke  ovens,  39. 
Collector  of  taxes  on  cars,  100. 
Collinston,  13,  24,40. 
Colonics,  90,  91. 
Colorado,  2. 
Colorado  River,  4,  95. 
Colorado  River  drainage,  7,  22,  27. 


i.\i)i-:x 


135 


Colt. .11.  7,  40. 

(.."oiUM'iitratiiij;.  47. 

Coiijj;rL'^Ciiti(^iiali>ls,  122. 

Collies,  HI. 

Coustjible,  103. 

Consolitlateil  mine,  .">4. 

Copper  liaiH-li  mine,  52. 

Corimie,  7,  24,  107. 

Coroner,  10:i. 

Cotton,  .S7,  117. 

Cottontails,  SI. 

Cottonwood  tree,  2!l,  77. 

Cottoinvoofl  Creek,  27. 

County  Hoard  of   Seliool  E.xaniiiiers, 

128." 
County  Commissioner.';,  lO:!. 
County  (Government.  li>2. 
County  School  .Sii|icrintenilfnt,  12.">. 
Course  of  study,  12o. 
Coyote,  80. 
Coyoto,  117. 
Cranes,  (>2. 
Creamery,  10!t. 
Creosote  bush,  08. 
Cretaceous, :?,  37. 
Cross-l)edded  sandstone,  7. 
Cyclones,  07. 

Daily  West  mine,  ■'>'!. 

Dairy  and  Food  Inspector,  100. 

Daltim  au<l  Lark,  4!). 

Dates  of  elections.  08. 

Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute,  lOS. 

Death  Canyon,  .'•4. 

Death  rate.  111. 

Deep  Creek,  13,  1('>. 

Deep  Creek  Mountains,  23,  53,  Id.'i. 

Deep  Creek  \'alley,  23. 

Deer,  81. 

Deltas,  13. 

Deposition,  2,  0,  11. 

Deseret,  117. 

Dcscret  Xciis,  40. 

Deseret  Telegraph,  01. 

Deseret  I'niversity,  120. 

Desert  Mountain.  r>4. 

Desert  sparrow,  SO. 

Desert  willow,  7.5. 

Detroit  district,  53. 


Diamond  A'allcy,  10. 

District  Court,  KH. 

District  Juil.ne,  102. 

Dividends  paid  liy  Utah  mines,  129. 

Dixie  country,  117. 

Doji  tax  collector,  1(I3. 

Do-  Valley.  27. 

Dou;;las  fir,  77. 

Draper,  13,  .''.7,  114. 

Dragon  mine,  51. 

Dry  Canyon,  't'-i. 

Dry  farminj^,  80. 

Dry  ores,  44. 

DueliesiK;  \'alley,  28. 

Ducks,  80,  81. 

Duiiway.  10,  .53. 

Du-iway  Mountains,  .53. 

Dutch  Mountain,  -'13. 

Duty  of  water,  83. 

Dynamic  forces,  2. 

Easles,  81. 
Echo  Canyon,  40. 
Education.  120. 
Elevations,  120. 
Elk,  SI. 
Elsinore,  IKi. 
Eniij;rati(tn  Canyon.  0.5. 
IOmi;;ration  Creek,  111. 
Emma  mine.  .">2. 
Emina"s  I'ark.  40. 
ICnabliiii,'  Act,  07. 
En.nineer,  10(>,  103. 
Enslish  sparrow,  80. 
I'jiiilish  walnut,  IMi. 
Epiiraim,  IKi. 
I''piscopalians,  122. 
Erosion,  2,0.  11,  13,  14. 
j  Kureka,  45,  .50,  '.M!. 
Eureka  Hill  mine,  51. 
Evaporation,  H. 
Evenins  primrose,  76. 
Executive.  W. 
External  forces,  11. 

Factories,  Box.  100:  Broom,  100; 
Candy,  lO'.i;  Caiinini,',  W);  Cracker, 
100:  Flour  mill,  100:  Knittini;.  W\: 
Launilry,  100:  Shoe.  113;  Siono-cut- 
tiuj,',  115;  Sugar,  100:  Vinegar,  10i». 


136 


INDEX 


Fairfield,  50. 

Fairview,  41,  110. 

Fanners'  Institute,  124. 

Farmington,  93,  107. 

Farm  products,  128. 

Ferron,  118. 

Fig,  00,  87,  117. 

Fillmore,  10,  90,  117. 

Fire,  103. 

Fire  clay,  42. 

Firs,  00. 

Fish  and  Game  Commissioner,  100. 

Fish  Lake.  9,  10,  18,  34,  77. 

Fi.sh  Si)rin<,'S,  10,  53,  105. 

Fish  Sprinjis  ref^ion,  117. 

Flagstaff  mine,  52. 

Flagstone,  41. 

Flickers,  81. 

Flora,  70. 

Flumes,  84. 

Fly,  59. 

Fogs,  81. 

Fort  Cove,  87. 

Fort  Douglas,  40,  113. 

Fremont,  '.KJ. 

Fremont  River,  33,  118. 

Frigid,  (i8,  09. 

Frigid  Zone,  1,  68,  69. 

Frisco,  52,95,110. 

Fruit,  86. 

Galena  mine,  53. 
Gas,  4,  7. 
Gemini  mine,  51. 
General  Statistics,  128. 
Geological  History,  2. 
Germania,  113. 
Geyser-Marion  mill,  .50. 
Gilsonite,  40. 
Glacial  action,  14. 
Glacial  Period,  70. 
Glaciers,  10. 
Glendale,  4. 
(41enwood  Park,  108. 
Goats,  81. 
Goiliva  mine,  51. 
Gold  Hill,  53. 
Gold  Mountain,  .52,  110. 
Gooseberry  Valley,  27. 


Gophers,  81. 

Goshen, 115. 

Go.shen  Valley,  25. 

Government,  97. 

Governor,  99. 

Grain,  80. 

Grand  Canyon,  4,  14. 

Grand  Central  mine,  51. 

Grand  Kiver,  29. 

Grand  Jury,  102. 

Grauite,  23,  37,  44,  53. 

(iranite  Mountains,  .53. 

Grantsville,  54,  93,  105. 

Grapes,  87. 

Graphite,  2. 

Grasshoppers,  91. 

Grass  Valley,  27,  117. 

Graylings,  59. 

Grazing  and  Stock  Raising,  88. 

Grazing  .scene,  IS,  88. 

Great  Basin,  0,  7,  93. 

Great  Basin  Divide,  25,  26. 

Great  Basin  region,  4,  22. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  13,  16,  41,  56,  86. 

(ireen  River,  29,  118. 

Green  River  Desert,  33. 

Green  River  region,  65,  118. 

Grizzly,  52. 

Ground  squirrel,  80,  81. 

Grouse,  81. 

Guano,  02. 

Guarantees  of  the  Constitution,  97. 

Gulf  of  California,  14. 

Gunnison,  110. 

Gunni.son  Island,  62. 

Gypsum,  3,41,  116. 

Hamlin,  117. 
Hanksville,  118. 
Hard  maple,  77. 
Hares,  81. 
Hat  Island,  61. 
Hawaiian  colony,  105. 
Hawks,  80,  81. 
Hay,  80.     * 
Health,  103. 
Heavy  .spar,  44. 
Heber,  94,  115. 
Hedgehogs,  81. 


lyDKX 


137 


Helper,  20. 

Hciii'fer,  •_'•.». 

Hfiiiy  MouiiUiiiis,  10,  l(i,  20,  30,  41. 

HfiiiiU's  power  ('onipany,  llXi. 

Heriiiitu;ce,  108. 

Ilcrriinaii,  114. 

lii-liliiiid  l!(.y,40. 

Hij;li  Scliixils,  120. 

H<.l)l)le  Crt'L'k,  2j. 

llol.l.Ml,   117. 

Iloinsilv  er  iiiiiic,  .VJ. 

llorsi'  raiicli,  01. 

Horses,  SS. 

Hot  Siiriiiys,  10,  108. 

House  of  Hepreseiitatives,  .'12. 

Hiiiitiii,uti>ii,  lis. 

Hyde  I'ark,  107. 

Hyriuii,  HXi. 


Ibapah.  10.5. 

lee,  2.  12. 

lee  A<;e.  7,  10,  IH,  .'iii,  70. 

Ice  streams,  1(). 

Iilaho,  <HJ. 

Imliaii  Creek,  .V2. 

Iiiiliaiiola.  11<>. 

IiKlians.  00. 

Insane  .Vsyliini.  llTi. 

Insei-ts,  HI. 

Internal  forees,  2. 

Iron  f'ity.  117. 

Iron  ("onnty,  .52. 

Iron  ore,  .5;?.  .54. 

Iron  SpriiifTS.  117. 

Irrigation.  815;  Frequency  of,  84  ;  Meth- 

oils,  S4,  10.-.. 
Italian  .sunsets.  117. 

.Tack  raliliits.  SO. 
•leniiiiijis  mine.  ■54. 
.losepli  City,  IKi. 
•Tostma.  liS.  7.5. 
.Tnal..  05. 

Jnal.  Valley,  25,  115. 
.Tn.lu'e,  101. 
.Tii.licial.  101. 
.Tnnction.  llfi. 
Juniper.  22.  OS,  78. 


Jurisdiction,  101. 
Justices*  courts,  102. 

Kanias,  25,  04. 

Kaiiab,  7,  :«»,  118. 

Kauarra,  2,  li,  22,  23,  2(J,  81,  03, 117. 

Kangaroo  mouse,  80. 

Kaysville,  107. 

Kimberly,  .52. 

Kiiiichirds,  81. 

Knijililsville,  51. 

Koosiiarem,  117. 

Kyune,  40. 

Lahontan,  0. 

Lake  Blanche,  10,  17,  18,  U. 

Lake  Bonneville,  ti,  0. 

Lake  Lahontan,  (i. 

Lake  Minnie,  33. 

Lakeshore.  24,  107. 

Liikeside  Mountain.s,  54. 

Laketowii,  107. 

La  Sal  Mountains,  l(i.  20,  118. 

I^\tterDay  Saints'  University,  121, 122. 

Liiva,  8,  0,  10. 

Lay  ton,  107. 

Leaniiiijjtoii,  23. 

Le.tiislative,  08. 

Lejiislature,  07. 

Lehi,  115. 

I^nion,  60. 

levels,  45. 

Life  Zones,  08. 

Lignite.  .37. 

Lime.  44. 

Limestone,  2.3. 

Little  Bear  River.  24. 

Little  Cottonwood.  IS.  110,  113. 

Little  Grand  Valley.  20. 

Lizard.  SO.  81. 

I^a,  lis. 

T-ojiaii.  0.  41.  liMI.  ins.  IJI. 

Loijan  TJiver.  24.  Hm;. 

Lo>;an  Temple.  liM.. 

Los  .\njreles  Riilroa<l.  111. 

Lost  Creek,  27. 

Lower  Mammoth  mine.  51. 

I.<")wer  Tem]ierate,  t>8. 

Liieern,  84,  87. 


138 


INDEX 


Lumber,  77. 
Lynue,  5)3. 
Lyux,  81. 

Magnesia,  44. 

Magnesium,  15. 

Magpies,  81. 

Malad  Kiver,  107. 

Malad  Valley,  107. 

Malau's  Heights,  108. 

Mamiiiiils,  81. 

Maiiimoth,  .ll. 

Maniiiiotli  mine,  51. 

]Manti,  '_'(i,  IKi. 

3Ianti  Temple,  41,  IK;. 

Map  i)f  chief  agrieultiiral  portion,  lOti. 

3Iarble,  41. 

Marmot,  81. 

Mai-ysvale,  52,  110. 

Mayday  mine,  51. 

Mayor,'  10:J. 

Meadow  lark,  80. 

Mendon.  107. 

Mercur,  .50. 

Mereur  Consolidated  mill,  4<). 

Mercur  Consolidated  mine,  50. 

Meri'ur  Railroad,  .50. 

Mesquit,  75. 

^Mexican  onyx,  41. 

^Mexican  pfijipy,  76. 

Mexicans,  iK). 

Mexico,  71,  97. 

Mice,  81. 

Midas  mine,  53. 

Middle  Temperate,  00. 

Midway,  115. 

Mil  ford,. 52.  117. 

Mill  Creek,  40,  93,  114. 

]Miller  mine,  %. 

Mills,  48. 

Millville,  106. 

Mine,  45. 

Mineral  range,  52. 

Mineral  resources,  3fi. 

Minerals  deposited  in  cf)nnection  with 

water,  .37. 
Minerals  deposited  in  veins,  42. 
Minerals  not  found  in  veins,  36. 
Mining,  45. 


Mining  camps,  49. 

Miner's  inch,  85. 
Mink,  81. 
Moab.  US. 
Mocking  bird,  80. 
Monroe,  IK),  110. 
Monster  mine,  54. 
Moraine,  17. 
INIorgan,  25,  54,  115. 
Mormon  Cluucli,  110,  121. 
Mormon  Tciiiide,  112,  117. 
Moroni,  lli;. 
Mountain  lion,  81. 
Mountain  mahogany,  77. 
^Mountain  rats,  81. 
Moiuilaiiis,  14. 
Mountain  shcc]).  si . 
Mount  Belknap,  9,  Hi,  117. 
Mount  Pleasant,  110. 
Mules,  88. 
Murray,  10().  114. 
Muskrats,  81. 

Narnnv-leaved  cottonwood,  77. 

Natural  gas,  4,  40. 

Navajo  Basin,  28. 

Neplu,2,  3,  24,41,  115. 

Nevada,  2,  0,  20,  31. 

Niagara  mine,  49. 

Nitre,  42. 

Nortli  Temi)eratc  Zorie,  1. 

Norway  mine,  54. 

Oak  bru.sl  1,49. 

Oak  Creek,  117. 

Oak  Zone,  74,  78. 

Oasis,  10,  90,  117. 

Ochre,  42. 

Ogden,<)0,  93,  108,  109. 

Ogden  Bench,  13. 

Ogden  Canyon,  5,  .34,  108. 

Ogden  River,  23,  24, 108. 

Ogden  Valley,  25. 

Oil,  4,  7,  40. 

O.K.  mine,. 52. 

Old  Jordan, 49. 

Ontario,  51. 

Oolite,  41. 

Oolitic  sandstone,  110. 


IMJEX 


I3y 


Ophir,  50. 

Oliiiirli,  l(i,  -2^,  no,  78. 

Oraii^'evilk-,  118. 

Ore.  4(j. 

Ore  bi)rlie.s,  44. 

Oregiiii  Short  Line  Railroad,  107. 

Otter,  SI. 

Ousel,  81. 

Oiillet  r)f  Great  Salt  Lake.  .">7. 

Oxygen,  4;5. 

Ozocerite,  40. 

Pahria,  .«).  118. 

Fanguiteli.  'Jd.  IKi. 

Paiiiiuiteh  Lake,  oi. 

Paradise.  KMi. 

I'arattiiie,  40. 

Park  ("ity..")l. 

Park  City  Railroad,  111. 

Parley'.^.  111. 

Parley's  Canyon,  ;>4,  ll.'>. 

Parley's  Canyon  reservoir,  !>2. 

Parleys  Park,  -'tl,  40,  (i(j,  77. 

Parowan.  41.  !i;!,  117. 

Payson,  4(1,  11."). 

Peaeli,»>(). 

Pelican  Point,  41. 

Pelieans,  (i2,  80. 

Petroleum.  40. 

Pika,  81. 

Pine  Valley.  :?<>,  117. 

Pine  Valley  Mountains,  31,  5.3. 

Pink  ClilTs",  V.\. 

Pinon.  7ti,  78. 

Plan  of  settleuu'ut,  '.tl. 

Plasterinj;  sand.  4'i. 

Plaster  of  i'aris,  41.  115. 

Plea.sant  (Jrove,  IKi,  115. 

Police,  103. 

Political  History,  07. 

Political  map.  '.Mi. 

Population  of  Incorporated  Cities  and 

Towns,  i;«). 
PojMilation  of  Salt  Lake  City,  131. 
Porphyry,  0.  4;<.  44. 
Porphyry  dykes.  0.  3!t, 
Portland  cement.  42. 
Portneuf  River,  57. 


Potassium,  15. 

Pot-holes,  17. 

Pottery,  115. 

Power  of  I^t;islature,  'MK 

Prairie  doj^s,  8(»,  81. 

Presbyterians,  121. 

President  Agricidtural  Colle^ie,  1'. 

President  University,  122. 

Price  River,  20,  118." 

Producticm  of  metals,  128. 

Products,  128. 

Prospect,  45. 

Providence.  100. 

Provo.40,  !I3,  110,  114. 

Provo  Bench,  13, 57. 

Provo  River,  7.  23,  25,  'M,  115. 

I'rovo  Valley.  20.  115. 

Provo  woolen  mills,  107. 

Puddingstone,  8. 

Pumice,  8,  9,  3(i. 

Quails,  81. 

Qualifications  of  senators,  08. 

Qualifications  of  voters,  07. 

Quartz,  44. 

Quartzite,  '23,  41,  44,  '.t2. 

Rabbit  l.ru.sh,  22.  71. 
Rabbit  Valley.  20. 

Rainfall,  8,  12,  m.^^ 

Raisins,  87. 

Randolph,  107. 

Rats.  81. 

Rattlesnakes.  80. 

Recorder.  103. 

Redmond.  41. 

Red  pine.  77. 

Red  Rock  (iap.  .')(i. 

Red  sand,  OS. 

Red  sandstone,  3. 

Reed's  Peak,  28. 

Reference  books.  128. 

Reform  School.  108. 

Region  south  of  the  Wasatch.  27. 

Region  west  of  the  Wasatch,  105. 

Relief  Map.  22. 

Reporter.  101. 

Representative,  08. 

Reptiles,  81. 


140 


INDEX 


Review  Outlines,  12^ 

Kichfiekl,  IK;.  / 

Kichmoiid,  107.       t 

Kio  Graiiile  WestiMii  Railroad,  9(). 

Rivertoii,  114. 

Road  riiuner,  80. 

Roasting,  41. 

Robinson,  51. 

Rockville,  117. 

Roe'ky  Mountains,  TO. 

Root  crops,  SI). 

Rijuud  Valley,  27. 

Routes  of  transportation,  4. 

Rush  Valley,  10."i. 

Sacramento  mine,  50. 

Sagebrush,  o.  ()8,  89. 

Sa'lina,  3,  41,  IKi. 

Salma  Canyon,  38. 

Salina  Creek,  27. 

Salmon,  59. 

Salt,  3,  1(J.  41,  IKi. 

Saltair,  (i3. 

Salt  Creek ,  2."). 

Salt  Lake  and  -Jdrdan  Canal,  95. 

Salt  Lake  City,  2,  3,  7,  13,  40,  G(i,  91,  92 

95,  96. 
Salt  Lake  City  sehool  system,  124. 
Salt  Lake-Vailey,  (i,  13,  24,  105,  109. 
Sampling,  4G. 
Sandstone,  7. 
San  Juan  River,  30,  118. 
Sanpete  Valley,  20,  9.".,  110. 
Sanpete  Valley  Railroad,  IH!. 
San  Pitch,  27. 
Santaquin,  41. 
Scenery,  32. 
School  Boards,  123. 
School  Institutes,  12.''.. 
School  supei'intendent,  iO,  103. 
School  taxes,  123. 
School  trustees,  103. 
Scofield,  38. 
Scotia  mine,  54. 
Scrub  oak,  09,  78. 
Seagulls,  00,  80,  92. 
Seaweeds,  (X). 
Secretary,  99. 
Secret  ballot,  98. 


Sego  lily,76,  92. 

Selective  power  of  water,  12. 

Senate,  98. 

Senators,  98. 

Service-berry,  78. 

Settlement,  90. 

Settlements  along  the  rim  of  the  Great 

Basin,  117. 
Sevier  Canyon,  52. 
Sevier  River,  7,  23,  27,  94,  95,  117. 
Sevier  Valley,  10,  15,  23,  24,  27,  90, 

116. 
Shadscale,  76,  89. 
Shafts,  45. 
Sheep,  88. 
Shell  limestone,  41. 
Sheriff,  103. 
Shore  lark,  80. 
Shoshone  Indians,  86. 
Shrimps,  .59. 
Sierras,  5,  71. 
Silk,  81. 
Silver  City,  51. 
Silver  Reef,  .53,  72. 
Skating,  25. 
Skull  Valley,  23,  105. 
Skimks,  81. 
Slaterville,  93. 
Smelters,  44,  113. 
Smelting,  40. 
Smelting  point,  110. 
Smithlield,  107. 
Snake  River,  0,  95. 
Snake  River  Drainage,  22. 
Snakes,  80,  SI. 
Snake  Valley  range,  23. 
Snowslides,  19,  20. 
Soda  Springs,  25. 
Soda-water  works,  115. 
Sodium,  15. 
Soil,  ()7. 
Sorting,  46. 

Southeastern  Utah,  118. 
Spanish  Fork,  115. 
Spanish  Fork  River,  25,  116. 
Spanish  mine,  49. 
Sparrows,  81. 
Speed  of  water,  12. 
Spermophile,  80. 


IXJJEX 


141 


Spriiifjiliilo,  ;«»,  7_',  117. 

Spring  Uleii,  3'J. 

Sprinjiville,  iW,  115. 

Springs,  10. 

Spruces,  11',  tiil,  77. 

Siiuirrcl,  S(l.  81. 

Star  District,  5"J. 

Star  mine,  .'il. 

State  Hoariis,  UK);  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, 101  ;  .\rt,  101 ;  Corrections,  101 ; 
I).  A.  &  M.  Society,  101  ;  Education, 
122;  Equalization,  100;  E.vaniiuers, 
100;  Health,  100;  In.sane  Asylum, 
101 ;  Phanuiicy,  101 ;  Public  works, 
103;  Reform  Scliool,  101;  School, 
lO.S;  Silk  culture,  KHJ. 

State  certificates,  1'_'2. 

State  diplomas,  I'J'J. 

Stale  District  Courts,  102. 

State  Fair,  112. 

State  Government,  98. 

Stateline,  .")4. 

State  Normal  School,  121. 

State  .School  Superintendent,  122. 

State  School  System,  122. 

State  Supreme  Court,  101. 

State  University,  112,  121. 

Statistician,  100. 

St.  George,  .S,  10.  .SI.  :,:>..  :,A.  fi.-,,  1 17. 

St.  George  Region,  7.  72,  ;t4,  121. 

St.  John.  10<). 

Stock,  12<t. 

Stockton,  1."?,  m.  Til. 

Storage  basins,  19. 

Stormont  mine,  o.S. 

Strawberry  Valley,  28. 

.Strong's  Knob,  62. 

Subsoil  Irrigation,  85. 

Subtroi)ical,  fi8. 

Suckers,  .")!i,  SO. 

Sulphur,  9,  .'{(). 

.Sulphuric  acid,  4."^. 

Summary.  124. 

Suid>eam  mine,  ."»1. 

Sunnyside,  118. 

Sunshine,  ."lO. 

Superintendent  of  parks,  10.'?. 

Supreme  Court,  99. 

Surveyor,  103. 


Swansea  mine,  .")1. 
System  of  (Joveriinif^nt,  97. 

Tabernacle.  112. 

Table  of  Elevations,  1'29. 

Table-lands,  8(i. 

Tallies,  128. 

Ta.xes,  98. 

Teasdale,  118. 

Telegraph  mine,  49. 

Telephone  System,  112. 

Telluride  Power  Company,  115. 

Temperate,  t>8. 

Temperature,  1,  8. 

Terminal  moraine,  17. 

Ternunus,  !Ki. 

Tetons,  'I't. 

Thistle.  ;;,  40. 

Thistle  Valley,  '20,  11(5. 

Thurber,  118. 

Timber,  77. 

Tintic,  .")0,  110. 

Tintic  IMountains,  50. 

Toads,  81. 

Tooele,  TO,  93,  10."). 

Tooele  Bench,  \',\. 

Tooele  Valley,  23.  93,  10(i. 

Toi)ical  Review.  127. 

Topography  and  Drainage,  22. 

Traders.  IH). 

Trappers.  !H). 

Travertine,  41. 

Treasure  Hill.  51. 

Treasurer.  99.  103. 

Tree  squirrel,  81. 

Trenton,  107. 

Trial  by  jury.  102. 

Trial  of  otlicers,  99. 

Tripoli,  41 . 

Tropical.  US. 

Tro])ical  /one.  1,  08. 

Tropics.  (>5. 

Trout,  .59,  80,  81. 

Tule  wren,  8<1. 

Tunnels,  45. 

Typical  desert,  9. 

Uintah,  93. 
Uinta  region,  118. 


142 


INDEX 


Uiiitas,  4,  G,  14,  15.  1(5,  25,  28,  7«. 

Uncle  Sam  mine,  51,  54. 

Union  Paeitic  Railroad,  95. 

Upper  Bear  River  Vallej',  (iO. 

Upper  Temperate,  69. 

Uranium,  118. 

U.S.  District  Attorney,  101. 

U-shaped  canyons,  17. 

U.S.  Marshal,' 101. 

U.S.  smelter,  IKi. 

Utah  and  Nevada  Railroad,  9fJ. 

Utah  Central  Railroad,  95. 

Utah  Coal  Age,  :i,  37. 

Utah  jiiniijer,  70. 

Utah  Lake,  25,  115,  111. 

Utah  mine,  51,  53. 

Utah  Northern  Railroad,  96. 

Utah  Valley,  25,  M,  114. 

\'allejo  mine,  52. 

A'ernal,  118. 

Vernon,  106. 

Veto,  it<t,  103. 

Virgin,  117. 

Virgin  River,  29,  30,  33,  72. 

V-shaped  canyons,  5,  14. 

Volcanoes,  8. 

Vulture,  80. 

Wagon  roads,  95. 

AVales,  37. 

Warm  springs,  53. 

Wa.satoh,  2,  4,  5,  6,  14,  16,  24,  26,  78, 

92,95,  106,  108,  111. 
Wasatch  and  Jordan  Valley  Railroad. 

Wi. 
Wasatch  Plateau,  (i,  15,  26. 
Wasatch  region,  23. 
Washington,  117. 
Water,  2,  12. 
Water  sjstem.  111. 
Water  wheels,  84. 
Watenvorks,  108. 


Wa  Wa  Mountains,  54. 

Weasel,  81. 

Weber  Canyon,  !I5,  111. 

Weber  River,  7,  23,  24,  25,  34,  108. 

Weber  Valley,  25,  26,  66,  94,  113. 

Weirs,  84. 

Wellsville,  106. 

West  Dip,  50. 

West  Jordan,  114. 

West  Tintic,  54. 

Western  Utah  Section,  22. 

Westminster  College,  122. 

Whim,  45. 

Whip,  45. 

White  cedar,  68. 

White  fir,  77. 

Whitetish,  59. 

Wild  cat,  81. 

Willard,  54,  93,  107. 

Willow,  78. 

Wind,  2,  12. 

Windlass,  45. 

Wind  Sculpture,  20. 

Wine,  117. 

Winslow's  Inn,  108. 

Winter  fat,  22,  88. 

Winter  Quarters  mine,  39. 

Wolverine,  81. 

Woodchucks,  85. 

Woodpecker,  81. 

Woolen  mill,  109. 

Wurtzellite,  40. 

Wyoming,  6,  14,  95. 

Yankee  Consolidated  mine,  51. 
Yellow  pine,  77. 
Yosemite  mine,  49. 
Yuccas,  75. 

Zion's  Cooperative  Mercantile  Institu- 
tion, 111. 
Zonal  Map,  68. 


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